DNA is the genetic material that is copied through the process of replication to produce two identical DNA molecules. During replication, the two strands of the DNA double helix separate and each strand acts as a template for the production of a new complementary strand. This results in two DNA molecules that are identical to the original. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The order of bases in DNA contains the genetic instructions that are used to direct the synthesis of proteins.
Basic concepts of Genes, Chromosomes & DNA: Human Genome ProjectAnamika Ramawat
The document discusses the basic concepts of genetics including DNA, genes, chromosomes, and genetic inheritance. It provides definitions of key terms like gene, allele, and chromosome. It also summarizes the goals and accomplishments of the Human Genome Project, which aimed to map the entire human genome to better understand genes and hereditary traits.
The document summarizes epitope prediction and its algorithms. It discusses that epitopes are the portions of antigens responsible for antigen-antibody specificity. There are two main types of epitopes: sequential/continuous epitopes recognized by T helper cells and conformational/discontinuous epitopes recognized by both T and B cells. It then describes several computational algorithms used for predicting B-cell and T-cell epitopes, including Hopp & Woods, Welling's method, Karplus & Schultz parameters, and Kolaskar & Tongaonkar's method. Finally, it lists several databases and servers that can be used for epitope prediction, such as SYFPEITHI, MHCPEP, and EPIM
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a cluster of genes found in all mammals that encodes proteins important for the immune system to distinguish self from non-self. MHC molecules are expressed on the cell surface and present peptide antigens to T cells. There are three main classes of MHC genes - class I presents endogenous peptides to cytotoxic T cells, class II presents exogenous peptides to helper T cells, and class III encodes non-antigen presenting proteins involved in immunity. MHC molecules have binding sites that allow them to bind a variety of peptide antigens through anchor residues, helping the immune system recognize a diverse array of pathogens. Polymorphism of MHC alleles within populations helps provide protection against rapidly mutating pathogens.
This document outlines a presentation on protein-protein interaction networks, including predicting such networks, available interaction data sources, visualization and analysis tools. Methods for predicting networks include analyzing genomic sequences, 'omics' data, and literature. Popular tools for visualizing and analyzing networks include Cytoscape, VisANT, and tools for detecting network motifs and similarities. The presentation will demonstrate predicting a network from microarray data using ARACNE and visualizing it in Cytoscape.
Chromatin is composed of DNA wrapped around histone proteins, which allows it to be tightly packed in the cell nucleus. There are two main types of chromatin: euchromatin, which is loosely coiled and allows for transcription; and heterochromatin, which is tightly packed and generally not transcribed. DNA combines with histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which involve 146bp of DNA wrapped around an octamer of core histone proteins. Nucleosomes further fold into a 30nm fiber, which then loops and coils to allow the long DNA molecules to fit inside the cell nucleus.
This document provides information about DNA structure and replication. It discusses that DNA is a type of macromolecule called a nucleic acid, made of nucleotides. The four nucleotides contain one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine. The bases bond with each other in complementary pairs to form the two strands of DNA's double helix structure. Prior to cell division, DNA replicates its strands through a process where the strands separate and each acts as a template for producing a new complementary strand. This results in two new double-stranded DNA molecules.
Basic concepts of Genes, Chromosomes & DNA: Human Genome ProjectAnamika Ramawat
The document discusses the basic concepts of genetics including DNA, genes, chromosomes, and genetic inheritance. It provides definitions of key terms like gene, allele, and chromosome. It also summarizes the goals and accomplishments of the Human Genome Project, which aimed to map the entire human genome to better understand genes and hereditary traits.
The document summarizes epitope prediction and its algorithms. It discusses that epitopes are the portions of antigens responsible for antigen-antibody specificity. There are two main types of epitopes: sequential/continuous epitopes recognized by T helper cells and conformational/discontinuous epitopes recognized by both T and B cells. It then describes several computational algorithms used for predicting B-cell and T-cell epitopes, including Hopp & Woods, Welling's method, Karplus & Schultz parameters, and Kolaskar & Tongaonkar's method. Finally, it lists several databases and servers that can be used for epitope prediction, such as SYFPEITHI, MHCPEP, and EPIM
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a cluster of genes found in all mammals that encodes proteins important for the immune system to distinguish self from non-self. MHC molecules are expressed on the cell surface and present peptide antigens to T cells. There are three main classes of MHC genes - class I presents endogenous peptides to cytotoxic T cells, class II presents exogenous peptides to helper T cells, and class III encodes non-antigen presenting proteins involved in immunity. MHC molecules have binding sites that allow them to bind a variety of peptide antigens through anchor residues, helping the immune system recognize a diverse array of pathogens. Polymorphism of MHC alleles within populations helps provide protection against rapidly mutating pathogens.
This document outlines a presentation on protein-protein interaction networks, including predicting such networks, available interaction data sources, visualization and analysis tools. Methods for predicting networks include analyzing genomic sequences, 'omics' data, and literature. Popular tools for visualizing and analyzing networks include Cytoscape, VisANT, and tools for detecting network motifs and similarities. The presentation will demonstrate predicting a network from microarray data using ARACNE and visualizing it in Cytoscape.
Chromatin is composed of DNA wrapped around histone proteins, which allows it to be tightly packed in the cell nucleus. There are two main types of chromatin: euchromatin, which is loosely coiled and allows for transcription; and heterochromatin, which is tightly packed and generally not transcribed. DNA combines with histone proteins to form nucleosomes, which involve 146bp of DNA wrapped around an octamer of core histone proteins. Nucleosomes further fold into a 30nm fiber, which then loops and coils to allow the long DNA molecules to fit inside the cell nucleus.
This document provides information about DNA structure and replication. It discusses that DNA is a type of macromolecule called a nucleic acid, made of nucleotides. The four nucleotides contain one of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine. The bases bond with each other in complementary pairs to form the two strands of DNA's double helix structure. Prior to cell division, DNA replicates its strands through a process where the strands separate and each acts as a template for producing a new complementary strand. This results in two new double-stranded DNA molecules.
This document discusses the organization of chromatin and DNA packaging in the cell nucleus. It describes four main levels of chromatin organization: 1) DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin, 2) Nucleosomes further organize into 30nm fibers, 3) The 30nm fibers then organize into looped domains, and 4) During cell division, the loops compact into mitotic chromosomes. Nucleosomes consist of about 150 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of core histone proteins, and act to tightly package DNA inside the nucleus.
1. Molecular phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities using molecular data like DNA, RNA, and protein sequences.
2. The first phylogenetic tree based on molecular data was constructed in 1967 by Fitch and Margoliash. This helped establish the significance of molecular evidence in taxonomy.
3. Phylogenetic studies use molecular techniques to assess historical evolutionary relationships, while phylogeographic studies examine geographic distributions of species. Molecular data revolutionized our understanding of evolutionary relationships.
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level.
In broad sense, the study of gene structure and functions at the molecular level to understand the molecular basis of hereditary, genetic variation, and the expression patterns of genes.The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry.
Important components of replication machineryammara12
This document summarizes several important components of DNA replication machinery, including DNA helicases, single-stranded DNA binding proteins, DNA topoisomerase, DNA primase, DNA polymerase, DNA ligase, DNA glycolyses, and telomeres. It describes what each component is, its role in DNA replication, and key properties. For example, it notes that DNA helicases use ATP to break hydrogen bonds between nucleotide base pairs, single-stranded DNA binding proteins prevent reformation of the DNA double helix, and DNA ligase reseals nicked DNA strands using ATP.
This document outlines the cells of the immune system, including their formation, types, and roles. It discusses:
1) The two major lineages that blood cells originate from in the bone marrow - myeloid and lymphoid.
2) The types of leucocytes (white blood cells), which include granulocytes like neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils, and agranulocytes.
3) The cells of the innate immune system that provide first line defense, such as neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells and natural killer cells, and their mechanisms of phagocytosis and intracellular killing.
This document discusses the structure, properties, and functions of DNA. It describes DNA as a polymer composed of deoxyribonucleotides that carries the genetic information found in chromosomes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. The basic structure of DNA involves two anti-parallel strands coiled around each other to form the familiar double helix structure, held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs and base stacking interactions. DNA exists in various structural forms and undergoes compaction in the cell, ultimately forming chromatin through association with histone proteins. The primary function of DNA is to serve as the template for its own replication and transcription into RNA to direct protein synthesis.
The Role of Introns in Genetic Regulation
================================
Introns are sequences that interrupt open reading frames (ORFs) in RNA.
Spliceosomal introns are exclusive of eukaryotic nuclear gene transcripts, are a complex of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins .
Introns are crucial because the protein variety is greatly enhanced by alternative splicing in which introns take partly important roles.
Changes in the exon-intron structure of a gene can also occur, including the loss or/and gain of introns. Intron loss is important aspect of gene structural variation and plays a vital role in gene evolution.
This report focuses on the intron, its origin, classification, evolution, loss and gain, function, and the diverse roles of splicing and alternative splicing in human disease.
DNA
history
structure
X-Ray diffraction image of DNA
base pairing principle
base pairs
bonding patterns of DNA
base stacking different conformations of DNA
different forms of DNA
function of DNA
replication
encoding information
mutation/recombination
gene expression
Application of DNA
Basophils are granulocytes that develop from bone marrow precursors and make up less than 1% of white blood cells. They contain granules with inflammatory mediators like histamine. Basophils express receptors for IgE (FcεRI) and other ligands that activate inflammatory pathways. Upon activation through IgE-dependent or IgE-independent processes, basophils rapidly degranulate and release mediators such as histamine. They also secrete cytokines like IL-4 and IL-13 over longer periods of time. Basophils play roles in both innate and adaptive immunity through these effector functions.
This document provides an introduction to molecular biology. It defines molecular biology as the branch of biology that deals with macromolecules like proteins and nucleic acids that are essential for life. It describes the three domains of life - eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and archaea. Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are outlined. Basic components of molecular biology like nucleic acids, chromosomes, genes and genomes are defined. The central dogma of molecular biology is mentioned and examples of applications of molecular biology are provided.
1) The document discusses cytoplasmic inheritance and the evolution of organelle genomes. It describes how mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own genetic material separate from the nuclear genome.
2) The endosymbiotic theory proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from ancient endosymbiotic relationships between bacteria and eukaryotic cells. Evidence indicates they originated from alpha-proteobacteria and cyanobacteria respectively.
3) Organelle genomes have undergone extensive gene loss during evolution. Many genes have been transferred to the nuclear genome over time. Recent evidence like NUMTS and NUPTS show gene transfer between organelles and the nucleus is ongoing.
The slide presenting the Importance of genetic code and discusses how does the genetic code deduced that brings in the entire understanding of Genetic today.
This document discusses basic concepts in human genetics including genes, chromosomes, DNA, alleles, dominant and recessive traits, and genetic disorders. It covers key topics like the human genome, inheritance from parents, genetic testing methods like amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling, influences on prenatal development, and genetic counseling.
This document discusses various topics in human genetics including:
1. It defines human genetics as the scientific study of human variation and heredity, and medical genetics as the study of the hereditary nature of human disease.
2. Genetic diseases can be caused by inherited mutations, chromosomal abnormalities, or mutations in somatic cells (cancer). Inherited diseases can be due to nuclear or mitochondrial genetic mutations.
3. Examples of inherited genetic disorders and their inheritance patterns are discussed, including autosomal dominant disorders like achondroplasia and autosomal recessive disorders like thalassemia.
Epigenetics is the study, in the field of genetics, of cellular and physiological phenotypic trait variations that are caused by external or environmental factors that switch genes on and off and affect how cells read genes instead of being caused by changes in the DNA sequence. -Wikipedia
Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain the genetic information of living organisms. DNA specifically stores and carries genetic information in the form of genes. It has a double helix structure with two strands coiled around each other. Each strand is made up of repeating nucleotide units containing a phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose in DNA), and one of four nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G). The bases on each strand bond with each other through hydrogen bonds - A pairs with T and C pairs with G. This discovery of DNA's double helix structure was made in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick based on experimental evidence from scientists like Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and Erwin Charg
The document summarizes the structure of DNA. It describes that DNA is composed of four nucleotides - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. These nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form a double helix structure. The bases pair with each other according to Watson-Crick base pairing rules - adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine. Hydrogen bonds stabilize the pairing between the bases. The double helix structure has an antiparallel arrangement with the strands running in opposite directions.
B.sc biochem i bobi u-1 introduction to bioinformaticsRai University
This document provides an introduction to the field of bioinformatics. It defines bioinformatics as using computer science and software tools to store, retrieve, organize and analyze biological data. The history of bioinformatics began in the 1970s with early work to create protein sequence databases. Today, bioinformatics has many applications including drug design, DNA analysis, and agricultural biotechnology. It also covers several key areas including genomics, proteomics, and systems biology. Necessary skills for bioinformatics include knowledge of molecular biology, mathematics, programming, and computer proficiency.
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix at an origin of replication and using each strand as a template to synthesize new partner strands. RNA primers are used to initiate DNA synthesis, which occurs semi-conservatively and bidirectionally from the replication fork to produce two identical copies of the original DNA molecule.
DNA contains the genetic code for all living organisms. It is made up of two strands coiled around each other. Four nitrogen bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine - form rungs between the strands. Watson and Crick discovered that adenine always pairs with thymine and guanine always pairs with cytosine. Genes, sections of DNA, provide instructions for making proteins. RNA carries copies of these instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein production. Mutations in genes can cause changes to proteins that may be harmful, harmless, or even beneficial to organisms.
The document discusses molecular genetics and mutations. It describes the central dogma of biology where DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into protein. It explains the structure of DNA and RNA, and the three types of RNA involved in protein synthesis. The process of transcription and translation are defined. Mutations can be caused by environmental factors and result in changes to DNA sequence. Point mutations and frameshift mutations are described, and the potential effects of mutations on proteins and diseases are discussed.
This document discusses the organization of chromatin and DNA packaging in the cell nucleus. It describes four main levels of chromatin organization: 1) DNA wraps around histone proteins to form nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin, 2) Nucleosomes further organize into 30nm fibers, 3) The 30nm fibers then organize into looped domains, and 4) During cell division, the loops compact into mitotic chromosomes. Nucleosomes consist of about 150 base pairs of DNA wrapped around an octamer of core histone proteins, and act to tightly package DNA inside the nucleus.
1. Molecular phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities using molecular data like DNA, RNA, and protein sequences.
2. The first phylogenetic tree based on molecular data was constructed in 1967 by Fitch and Margoliash. This helped establish the significance of molecular evidence in taxonomy.
3. Phylogenetic studies use molecular techniques to assess historical evolutionary relationships, while phylogeographic studies examine geographic distributions of species. Molecular data revolutionized our understanding of evolutionary relationships.
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level.
In broad sense, the study of gene structure and functions at the molecular level to understand the molecular basis of hereditary, genetic variation, and the expression patterns of genes.The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry.
Important components of replication machineryammara12
This document summarizes several important components of DNA replication machinery, including DNA helicases, single-stranded DNA binding proteins, DNA topoisomerase, DNA primase, DNA polymerase, DNA ligase, DNA glycolyses, and telomeres. It describes what each component is, its role in DNA replication, and key properties. For example, it notes that DNA helicases use ATP to break hydrogen bonds between nucleotide base pairs, single-stranded DNA binding proteins prevent reformation of the DNA double helix, and DNA ligase reseals nicked DNA strands using ATP.
This document outlines the cells of the immune system, including their formation, types, and roles. It discusses:
1) The two major lineages that blood cells originate from in the bone marrow - myeloid and lymphoid.
2) The types of leucocytes (white blood cells), which include granulocytes like neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils, and agranulocytes.
3) The cells of the innate immune system that provide first line defense, such as neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells and natural killer cells, and their mechanisms of phagocytosis and intracellular killing.
This document discusses the structure, properties, and functions of DNA. It describes DNA as a polymer composed of deoxyribonucleotides that carries the genetic information found in chromosomes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. The basic structure of DNA involves two anti-parallel strands coiled around each other to form the familiar double helix structure, held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs and base stacking interactions. DNA exists in various structural forms and undergoes compaction in the cell, ultimately forming chromatin through association with histone proteins. The primary function of DNA is to serve as the template for its own replication and transcription into RNA to direct protein synthesis.
The Role of Introns in Genetic Regulation
================================
Introns are sequences that interrupt open reading frames (ORFs) in RNA.
Spliceosomal introns are exclusive of eukaryotic nuclear gene transcripts, are a complex of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins .
Introns are crucial because the protein variety is greatly enhanced by alternative splicing in which introns take partly important roles.
Changes in the exon-intron structure of a gene can also occur, including the loss or/and gain of introns. Intron loss is important aspect of gene structural variation and plays a vital role in gene evolution.
This report focuses on the intron, its origin, classification, evolution, loss and gain, function, and the diverse roles of splicing and alternative splicing in human disease.
DNA
history
structure
X-Ray diffraction image of DNA
base pairing principle
base pairs
bonding patterns of DNA
base stacking different conformations of DNA
different forms of DNA
function of DNA
replication
encoding information
mutation/recombination
gene expression
Application of DNA
Basophils are granulocytes that develop from bone marrow precursors and make up less than 1% of white blood cells. They contain granules with inflammatory mediators like histamine. Basophils express receptors for IgE (FcεRI) and other ligands that activate inflammatory pathways. Upon activation through IgE-dependent or IgE-independent processes, basophils rapidly degranulate and release mediators such as histamine. They also secrete cytokines like IL-4 and IL-13 over longer periods of time. Basophils play roles in both innate and adaptive immunity through these effector functions.
This document provides an introduction to molecular biology. It defines molecular biology as the branch of biology that deals with macromolecules like proteins and nucleic acids that are essential for life. It describes the three domains of life - eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and archaea. Key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are outlined. Basic components of molecular biology like nucleic acids, chromosomes, genes and genomes are defined. The central dogma of molecular biology is mentioned and examples of applications of molecular biology are provided.
1) The document discusses cytoplasmic inheritance and the evolution of organelle genomes. It describes how mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own genetic material separate from the nuclear genome.
2) The endosymbiotic theory proposes that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from ancient endosymbiotic relationships between bacteria and eukaryotic cells. Evidence indicates they originated from alpha-proteobacteria and cyanobacteria respectively.
3) Organelle genomes have undergone extensive gene loss during evolution. Many genes have been transferred to the nuclear genome over time. Recent evidence like NUMTS and NUPTS show gene transfer between organelles and the nucleus is ongoing.
The slide presenting the Importance of genetic code and discusses how does the genetic code deduced that brings in the entire understanding of Genetic today.
This document discusses basic concepts in human genetics including genes, chromosomes, DNA, alleles, dominant and recessive traits, and genetic disorders. It covers key topics like the human genome, inheritance from parents, genetic testing methods like amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling, influences on prenatal development, and genetic counseling.
This document discusses various topics in human genetics including:
1. It defines human genetics as the scientific study of human variation and heredity, and medical genetics as the study of the hereditary nature of human disease.
2. Genetic diseases can be caused by inherited mutations, chromosomal abnormalities, or mutations in somatic cells (cancer). Inherited diseases can be due to nuclear or mitochondrial genetic mutations.
3. Examples of inherited genetic disorders and their inheritance patterns are discussed, including autosomal dominant disorders like achondroplasia and autosomal recessive disorders like thalassemia.
Epigenetics is the study, in the field of genetics, of cellular and physiological phenotypic trait variations that are caused by external or environmental factors that switch genes on and off and affect how cells read genes instead of being caused by changes in the DNA sequence. -Wikipedia
Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain the genetic information of living organisms. DNA specifically stores and carries genetic information in the form of genes. It has a double helix structure with two strands coiled around each other. Each strand is made up of repeating nucleotide units containing a phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose in DNA), and one of four nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G). The bases on each strand bond with each other through hydrogen bonds - A pairs with T and C pairs with G. This discovery of DNA's double helix structure was made in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick based on experimental evidence from scientists like Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and Erwin Charg
The document summarizes the structure of DNA. It describes that DNA is composed of four nucleotides - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. These nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form a double helix structure. The bases pair with each other according to Watson-Crick base pairing rules - adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine. Hydrogen bonds stabilize the pairing between the bases. The double helix structure has an antiparallel arrangement with the strands running in opposite directions.
B.sc biochem i bobi u-1 introduction to bioinformaticsRai University
This document provides an introduction to the field of bioinformatics. It defines bioinformatics as using computer science and software tools to store, retrieve, organize and analyze biological data. The history of bioinformatics began in the 1970s with early work to create protein sequence databases. Today, bioinformatics has many applications including drug design, DNA analysis, and agricultural biotechnology. It also covers several key areas including genomics, proteomics, and systems biology. Necessary skills for bioinformatics include knowledge of molecular biology, mathematics, programming, and computer proficiency.
DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix at an origin of replication and using each strand as a template to synthesize new partner strands. RNA primers are used to initiate DNA synthesis, which occurs semi-conservatively and bidirectionally from the replication fork to produce two identical copies of the original DNA molecule.
DNA contains the genetic code for all living organisms. It is made up of two strands coiled around each other. Four nitrogen bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine - form rungs between the strands. Watson and Crick discovered that adenine always pairs with thymine and guanine always pairs with cytosine. Genes, sections of DNA, provide instructions for making proteins. RNA carries copies of these instructions from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for protein production. Mutations in genes can cause changes to proteins that may be harmful, harmless, or even beneficial to organisms.
The document discusses molecular genetics and mutations. It describes the central dogma of biology where DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into protein. It explains the structure of DNA and RNA, and the three types of RNA involved in protein synthesis. The process of transcription and translation are defined. Mutations can be caused by environmental factors and result in changes to DNA sequence. Point mutations and frameshift mutations are described, and the potential effects of mutations on proteins and diseases are discussed.
Modern genetics began in the 1920s with the study of DNA and its role in heredity. Griffith's experiments in 1928 showed that genetic material could be transferred between bacteria, transforming harmless bacteria into deadly ones. Hershey and Chase's experiments in 1952 provided proof that DNA, rather than proteins, carries the genetic instructions of organisms. The structure of DNA was determined in 1953 by Watson, Crick, and Franklin to be a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs.
The document discusses DNA replication and protein production. It explains that DNA controls protein production through transcription and translation. DNA replication involves unwinding DNA and adding complementary nucleotides to each strand to produce two identical copies. Transcription involves copying DNA into mRNA which carries protein instructions to ribosomes. Translation at the ribosomes then builds proteins according to the mRNA codons through tRNA and amino acid pairing. The document also covers DNA technology like extraction, gel electrophoresis, recombinant DNA, and genetic mutations.
1. Genomics is the study ofa. The structure and function of m.docxblondellchancy
1. Genomics is the study of:
a. The structure and function of mutations and how they alter genetic traits.
b. Genes and the DNA sequences between genes and how they determine development.
c. The information provided by computer programs which analyzes mRNA.
d. The human genome as compared to other vertebrate genomes.
2. Microarrays are a very useful tool in genomics because they:
a. Help scientists examine intergenetic DNA by separating it from genes.
b. Provide a unique promoter region for polymerase chain reactions.
c. Allow scientists to examine thousands of genes all at once.
d. Decrease the time it takes for scientists to make copies of DNA.
3. Generally, every cell in our body contains the same 20,000 (or so) genes. However, cells in our body are different from each other because they:
a. Have different genes turned “on” or “off” to support different functions.
b. Contain different copies of genes for different functions.
c. Provide different nucleotide bases for each developmental function.
d. Function differently based on varying proteomics.
4. How can scientists determine the function of or differences between cell types? They can examine the:
a. Number of nucleotide bases in genes versus intergenetic sequences.
b. Amount of mRNA expressed for each gene in a cell type, and then compare that information between cell types.
c. Amount of mutations between genes in the intergenetic spaces.
d. Number of tRNA copies for a particular cell type.
5. How is a microarray constructed? In each spot, there are:
a. Copies of all the genes for an organism.
b. Multiple copies of one gene; each spot has copies for a different gene.
c. Multiple copies of intergenetic sequences, which bind to genes in the samples.
d. Copies of intergenetic sequences, which promote the replication of DNA in a sample.
6. The experiment that begins in Chapter 3 of the simulation seeks to answer the question:
a. What is the difference between intergenetic spaces in cancer cells versus healthy cells?
b. Why do different cell types express different amounts of mRNA?
c. How do different cancer cells produce different mutations?
d. What is the difference between healthy cells and cancer cells?
7. Why can’t doctors use cell appearance to diagnose cancer?
a. Not all cancer cells look different from healthy cells.
b. Cancer cells are too small to examine using cell appearance.
c. Not all cancer cells are able to be biopsied from the body.
d. Cancer cells change appearance when taken out of the body.
8. In the experiment, a solvent is added to each cell type (healthy cells and cancer cells). After the sample tube containing each cell type is mixed on the vortex, the RNA is separated from the rest of the sample in a centrifuge. Why does DNA settle to the bottom of the tube and RNA doesn’t?
a. RNA is much longer than DNA.
b. RNA is attached.
1) Bacterial transformation experiments and studies of bacteriophages provided evidence that DNA carries genetic information. Avery discovered DNA was the transforming factor in bacteria. Hershey and Chase found that the genetic material of bacteriophages was DNA.
2) The structure of DNA was elucidated. Chargaff found rules of base pairing in DNA. Franklin's X-ray diffraction revealed DNA's double helix structure. Watson and Crick built a DNA model explaining its structure and base pairing.
3) DNA replication copies genetic information by unwinding the double helix and synthesizing new complementary strands according to base pairing rules, ensuring each daughter cell inherits the full genome. It occurs at replication forks in prok
Biology 204 Principles of Biology I Assignment 2CMichael Taylor
Biology 204 Principles of Biology I Assignment 2C
For students with first names starting with the letters O to Z.
This assignment is graded out of 110 points, and is worth 10% of your final mark. Please submit this assignment after you have completed Chapter 16 and before you write the final exam
Modern genetics revolves around DNA and its role in heredity. James Watson and Francis Crick discovered that DNA is made of two chains of nucleotides in a ladder-like structure. They also discovered that DNA replicates itself through a process of unwinding and new nucleotides attaching based on base pairing. DNA stores genetic information through genes, which are sections that code for the production of proteins using codons and mRNA.
The document contains a 28 question unit test covering topics in biology including DNA, RNA, cellular respiration, protein synthesis, and gel electrophoresis. Questions cover the basic structure of DNA and RNA, the process of DNA replication, the genetic code, transcription and translation, cellular respiration, gel electrophoresis and analyzing DNA fragments to compare genetic variation. The test assesses understanding of key concepts and processes in molecular biology, genetics and biochemistry.
This document provides an overview of molecular genetics and biotechnology. It discusses DNA structure and replication, gene expression through transcription and translation, genetic engineering techniques like cloning and genetic modification, applications of mapping the human genome, and uses of biotechnology in areas like agriculture, medicine, and biomedical research. The key topics covered include the central dogma of molecular biology, genetic engineering processes, important discoveries like the structure of DNA and sequencing the human genome, and how biotechnology applies molecular genetics.
Batch (1) first sem (1) mid m.sc exam molecular biologyySalah Abass
The document is a midterm exam for a molecular biology course consisting of multiple choice and short answer questions covering topics like DNA structure, replication, transcription, translation, and gene expression. Some key points:
- The multiple choice section contains 30 questions testing understanding of DNA and RNA structure and function, the central dogma, DNA replication, transcription, and translation.
- The short answer questions require discussing structural differences between DNA and RNA, enzymes involved in DNA replication, components and functions of PCR, processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA, definitions of several molecular biology terms, differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes, roles of mRNA, rRNA and tRNA in protein synthesis, antibiotics
DNA is a double helical structure that transfers the genetic information from one generation to another. it consists of two strands with the four nucleotide basis .The four nucleotides contains adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine .These four nuclic basis are such arranged and coiled with the help of hydrogen bonds and forms the helical structure of DNA. In RNA the thymine is replaced with uracil. Here you will learn the replication ,transcription and translation process in DNA.
The document provides a tutorial on mitosis and signal transduction. It begins with a section on mitosis that includes 15 multiple choice questions testing understanding of the phases of mitosis and cellular division. It then covers signal transduction, defining key terms like ligands, receptors, and second messengers. This section includes 14 multiple choice questions on topics like G-protein coupled receptors, phosphorylation cascades, and the role of second messengers in cellular signaling pathways.
6 molecular basis of inheritance extraTeenTraining
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to molecular genetics and inheritance. It discusses DNA and RNA as the nucleic acids that carry genetic information. The central dogma of molecular biology involving DNA replication, transcription of DNA to RNA, and translation of RNA to protein is explained. Key terms like operon, exon, intron, and nucleosome are defined. DNA structure and packaging into chromatin and chromosomes is described. The experiments demonstrating that DNA is the genetic material like Griffith's transformation experiments and Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty's work are summarized. Semiconservative DNA replication and the Meselson-Stahl experiment supporting it are outlined. The process of transcription in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
A short yet comprehensive presentation on bacterial genetics, an important microbiology topic for BDS 2nd, MBBS 2nd and MD/MS /MDS 1st . Made using CP Baveja's Textbook of Microbiology. Meant as an introduction and overview with stress on some key areas.
Topics covered: Basic Principles, Synthesis of Protein, Extra Chromosomal Genetic Material, Bacterial Variation , Gene Transfer, Genetic Mechanisms of Drug Resistance, Genetic Engineering, DNA Probes, Polymerase Chain Reaction, Genetically Modified Organisms and Gene Therapy.
The document provides a historical overview of key discoveries related to DNA as the genetic material:
1) In the early 1900s, chromosomes were shown to carry hereditary information. By the 1940s-1950s, experiments by Avery, Griffith, Hershey and Chase provided evidence that DNA - not protein - was the genetic material.
2) Watson and Crick proposed the double helix structure of DNA in 1953 based on Chargaff's rules and Franklin's X-ray crystallography photos. Their model explained how DNA replicates and hereditary information is passed from parents to offspring.
3) Subsequent work in the 1960s by Nirenberg, Matthaei and others cracked the
1. The document provides a review of biology concepts related to DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis. It contains 14 multiple choice questions about DNA replication, molecular clocks, sickle cell anemia treatment via gene therapy, DNA's role in controlling cells, transcription errors, the universal genetic code, DNA and RNA structures, transcription, DNA fingerprinting, and cloning human genes in bacteria.
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1) James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA in 1953, which showed that DNA is the genetic material that directs the inheritance of traits.
2) Experiments in the 1940s-1950s provided evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material: Avery, McCarty, and MacLeod showed DNA was the transforming principle in bacteria; Hershey and Chase showed that DNA, not protein, enters the host cell during bacterial virus infection.
3) Watson and Crick developed the double helix model of DNA structure in 1953 based on evidence such as Chargaff's rules of base pairing and X-ray crystallography images from Franklin - their model explained
1) DNA was identified as the genetic material through experiments in the 1940s-1950s studying bacteria, viruses, and their ability to transform cells.
2) Watson and Crick developed the double helix model of DNA structure in 1953 based on evidence including X-ray crystallography images that showed DNA had a regular helical structure.
3) DNA replication is semi-conservative and involves unwinding the DNA double helix, synthesizing new strands based on base-pairing rules, and producing two identical copies of the original DNA molecule before cell division.
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3. UNIT 3: INTRODUCING BIOLOGY
Chapter 8: From DNA to Proteins
I. Identifying DNA as the Genetic Material (8.1)
A. Griffith finds a “transforming principle”
1. Griffith experimented with the
bacteria that cause pneumonia.
Pneumococcus bacteria
4. 2. He used two forms and injected them into mice
a. The S, or smooth form (deadly)
b. R form, or rough (not deadly).
3. S form of bacteria killed with heat mice
unaffected
5. 4. Injected mice with combination of heat-killed
and live R bacteria
a. Mice died
b. Griffith concluded that a transforming
material passed from dead S bacteria to live
R bacteria, making them deadly.
6. B. Avery identifies DNA as the transforming
principle
1. Experimented with R bacteria and extract
made from S bacteria
2. Allowed them to observe transformation of
R bacteria
3. Developed process to
purify their extract
7. a. Performed series of tests to find out if
transforming principle was DNA or protein
b. Performed
chemical tests that
showed no proteins
were present.
c. Test revealed that
DNA was present
8. 4. Performed tests with Enzymes
a. Added enzymes to break down proteins-
transformation still occurred.
b. Added enzymes to break down RNA-
transformation still occurred.
c. Added enzymes to break
down DNA- transformation
failed to occur.
d. Concluded DNA was
transforming factor
9. C. Hershey and Chase confirm that DNA is the
genetic material
1. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase provided
conclusive evidence that DNA was the
genetic material in 1952
2. Studied viruses that infect bacteria
(bacteriophage)
10. a. Bacteriophage is simple- protein coat
surrounding DNA core
1). Proteins contain sulfur buy very little
phosphorus
2). DNA contains phosphorus and very
little sulfur
11. b. Experiment No.1- Bacteria infected with phages
with radioactive sulfur atoms- no radioactivity
inside bacteria
c. Experiment No.2- Bacteria infected with phages
with radioactive phosphorus atoms-
radioactivity found inside bacteria
d. Concluded phages
DNA had entered bacteria
but proteins had not.
Genetic material must
be DNA
12. II. Structure of DNA (8.2)
A. DNA is composed of four types of
nucleotides
1. DNA is long
polymer composed
of monomers called
nucleotides.
13. a. Each nucleotide has three parts
1). Phosphate group
2). Ring-shaped sugar called deoxyribose
3). Nitrogen-containing base
b. Scientists first believed that DNA was made of
equal parts of four different nucleotides (same in all
organisms
14. 2. In 1950 Erwin Chargaff changed thinking by
analyzing DNA of several different organisms
a. Found same four bases of DNA in all
organisms
b. Proportions of 4 bases were different in
organisms
15. c. Found amount of adenine equals thymine and
amount of cytosine equals amount of guanine.
A = T and C = G (called Chargaff’s rules)
16. B. Watson and Crick developed accurate model of
DNA’s three-dimensional structure
1. Used previous work of other scientists and
hypothesized that DNA might also be a
helix
17. a. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins used x-
ray crystallography and suggested DNA helical
shape
b. Work of Hershey, Chase, Chargaff, and Linus
Pauling
18. 2. In 1953 Watson and Crick published their DNA
model in a paper in the journal Nature
a. DNA was double helix
b. Strands are
complementary (they fit
together and are the
opposites of each other-
pairing of bases according
to Chargaff’s rules
19. 3. Nucleotides always pair in the same way
a. Backbone formed by covalent bonds that
connect sugar of one nucleotide to phosphate
of another
b. Two sides held
together by weak
hydrogen bonds
between bases
c. Base pairing
rules- A with T and
C with G
20. III. DNA Replication (8.3)
A. Replication copies the genetic information
1. Replication creates
exact copies of itself
during the cell cycle
2. Replication assures
every cell has complete
set of identical genetic
information
21. B. Proteins (enzymes) carry out the process of
replication
1. Enzymes begin to unzip double helix
(DNA polymerases)
a. Hydrogen bonds are broken
b. Molecule separates exposing bases
24. C. Replication is fast and accurate
1. Process takes just a few hours
2. DNA replication starts at many points in
eukaryotic chromosomes.
3. DNA polymerases can find and correct errors.
25. A
A
T C
C A A
A G
A T T T T T
G
G C
1. First the DNA must unzip:
Enzymes split apart the base pairs
and unwind the DNA.
30. A
A
T C
C A A
A G
A T T T T T
G
G C
T A
C T
A
T
31. A
A
T C
C A A
A G
A T T T T T
G
G C
T A
C T
A
T
C
G
3. Backbone Bonds: The sugar-
phosphate backbone is assembled to
complete the DNA strand
32. A
A
T C
C A A
A G
A T T T T T
G
G C
T A
C T
A
T
C
G
A C A
T
G
T
T
G
33. A
A
T C
C A A
A G
A
A T T T T T
G
G C
T A
C T
A
T
C
G
A C A
T
G
T
T
G
A
34. A
A
T C
C A A
A G
A
A T T T T T
G
G C
T A
C T
A
T
C
G
A C A
T
G
T
T
G
A
The DNA is now duplicated:
The cell can now divide into two
daughter cells.
35. IV. Transcription (8.4)
A. RNA carries DNA’s instruction
1. Francis Crick defined the central
dogma of molecular biology
a. Replication copies DNA
b. Transcription converts DNA
message into intermediate
molecule, called RNA
c. Translation interprets an
RNA message into string of
amino acids, called
polypeptide (protein)
36. 2. In prokaryotic cells processes take place in
cytoplasm
3. In eukaryotic cells processes are separated
a. Replication and Transcription in nucleus
b. Translation occurs in cytoplasm
37. 4. RNA acts as messenger between nucleus and
protein synthesis in cytoplasm
5. RNA differs from DNA in three significant ways
a. Sugar in RNA is ribose not deoxyribose
b. RNA has the base uracil in place of
thymine
c. RNA is single stranded not double
38. B. Transcription makes three types of RNA
1. Transcription copies sequence of DNA
(one gene) and is catalyzed by RNA
polymerases
a. DNA begins to unwind at specific site
(gene)
39. b. Using one strand of DNA, complementary
strand of RNA is produced
c. RNA strand detaches and DNA reconnects
40. 2. Transcription produces 3 kinds of RNA
a. Messenger RNA (mRNA)- code for
translation
b. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)- forms part of
ribosome
c. Transfer RNA (tRNA)- brings amino acids
from the cytoplasm to a ribosome to help
make growing protein
41. 3. The transcription process is similar to replication
a. Both occur in nucleus
b. Both involve unwinding of DNA
c. Both involve complementary base pairing
42. V. Translation (8.5)
A. Amino acids are coded by mRNA base
sequences
1. Translation converts mRNA
messages into polypeptides
2. A codon is a sequence of three
nucleotides that codes for an amino
acid.
43. a. RNA could code 64 different combinations
b. Plenty to cover the 20 amino acids used to build
proteins in human body and most other organisms
44. c. Many amino acids coded by more than one
codon
d. Also special codons
1). Start codon- signals start of translation
2). Stop codon- signals end of amino acid
chain
45. 3. This code is universal- same in almost all
organisms
a. Suggests
common ancestor
b. Means scientist
can insert gene from
one organism into
another to make
functional protein
46. B. Amino acids are linked to become a protein
1. Two important “tools” needed to translate a
codon into an amino acid
a. Ribosome- site of protein synthesis
47. b. tRNA- carries free-floating amino acids from
cytoplasm to ribosome
1). tRNA attaches to specific amino acid
2). Has “3-letter” anticodon that recognizes
a specific condon
48. 2. Translation occurs in cytoplasm of cell
a. mRNA binds to ribosome
b. Ribosome pulls mRNA strand through one
codon at a time
49. c. Exposed codon attracts complementary tRNA
bearing an amino acid
anticodon
codon
50. d. Amino acids bond together and tRNA molecule
leaves to find another amino acid
51. e. Ribosome moves down mRNA attaching more
amino acids until reaches stop codon.
stop codon
Protein molecule
52. VI. Gene Expression and Regulation (8.6)
A. Your cells can control when gene is “turned
on or off”
B. Different in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
C. Because cells are specialized in
multicellular organisms, only certain genes
are expressed in each type of cell.
53. VII. Mutations (8.7)
A. Some mutations affect a single gene,
while others affect an entire chromosome
1. Mutation- a change in an organism’s
DNA
2. Mutations that affect a
single gene usually happen
during replication
3. Mutations that affect
group of genes or
chromosome happen
during meiosis
54. B. Gene Mutations
1. Point mutation- one
nucleotide is substituted
for another
Result of simple
point mutation
56. 3. Chromosomal mutations-
a. Gene duplication-exchange of DNA
segments through crossing over during
meiosis
b. Gene translocation- results from the
exchange of DNA segments between
nonhomologous chromosomes
57. C. Mutations may or may not affect phenotype
1. Impact on phenotype-
a. Chromosomal mutations affect
many genes and have big affect
on organism
58. b. Some gene mutations change phenotype.
1. A mutation may cause a premature stop
codon.
2. A mutation may change protein shape
or the active site
3. A mutation may change gene regulation
59. c. Some gene mutations do not affect phenotype
1. A mutation may be silent
2. A mutation may occur in a noncoding
region
3. A mutation may not affect protein folding
or the active site.
60. 2. Mutations in body cells do not affect offspring.
3. Mutations in sex cells can be harmful or
beneficial to offspring
4. Natural selection
often removes mutant
alleles from a population
when they are less
adaptive.
61. D. Mutations can be caused by several factors
1. Replication errors can
cause mutations
2. Mutagens, such as UV
ray and chemicals, can
cause mutations
3. Some cancer drugs
use mutagenic
properties to kill cancer
cells.
63. The figure below shows the structure of a(an)
a. DNA molecule.
b. amino acid.
c. RNA molecule.
d. protein.
64. The figure below shows the structure of a(an)
a. DNA molecule.
b. amino acid.
c. RNA molecule.
d. protein.
65. Identify structure outlined and labeled by the
letter X in Figure below.
a. RNA
b. Phosphate
c. Nucleotide
d. 5-carbon sugar
66. Identify structure outlined and labeled by the
letter X in Figure below.
a. RNA
b. Phosphate
c. Nucleotide
d. 5-carbon sugar
67. Which of the following is a nucleotide found in
DNA?
a. ribose + phosphate group + thymine
b. ribose + phosphate group + uracil
c. deoxyribose + phosphate group + uracil
d. deoxyribose + phosphate group + cytosine
68. Which of the following is a nucleotide found in
DNA?
a. ribose + phosphate group + thymine
b. ribose + phosphate group + uracil
c. deoxyribose + phosphate group + uracil
d. deoxyribose + phosphate group +
cytosine
69. Because of base pairing in DNA, the percentage
of
a. adenine molecules in DNA is about equal
to the percentage of guanine molecules.
b. pyrimidines in DNA is about equal to the
percentage of purines.
c. purines in DNA is much greater than the
percentage of pyrimidines.
d. cytosine molecules in DNA is much greater
than the percentage of guanine molecules.
70. Because of base pairing in DNA, the percentage
of
a. adenine molecules in DNA is about equal
to the percentage of guanine molecules.
b. pyrimidines in DNA is about equal to
the percentage of purines.
c. purines in DNA is much greater than the
percentage of pyrimidines.
d. cytosine molecules in DNA is much
greater than the percentage of guanine
molecules.
71. DNA is copied during a process called
a. replication.
b. translation.
c. transcription.
d. transformation.
72. DNA is copied during a process called
a. replication.
b. translation.
c. transcription.
d. transformation.
73. DNA replication results in two DNA molecules,
a. each with two new strands.
b. one with two new strands and the other
with two original strands.
c. each with one new strand and one
original strand.
d. each with two original strands.
74. DNA replication results in two DNA molecules,
a. each with two new strands.
b. one with two new strands and the other
with two original strands.
c. each with one new strand and one
original strand.
d. each with two original strands.
75. During DNA replication, a DNA strand that has
the bases CTAGGT produces a strand with the
bases
a. TCGAAC.
b. GATCCA.
c. AGCTTG.
d. GAUCCA.
76. During DNA replication, a DNA strand that has
the bases CTAGGT produces a strand with the
bases
a. TCGAAC.
b. GATCCA.
c. AGCTTG.
d. GAUCCA.
77. In eukaryotes, DNA
a. is located in the nucleus.
b. floats freely in the cytoplasm.
c. is located in the ribosomes.
d. is circular.
78. In eukaryotes, DNA
a. is located in the nucleus.
b. floats freely in the cytoplasm.
c. is located in the ribosomes.
d. is circular.
79. RNA contains the sugar
a. ribose.
b. deoxyribose.
c. glucose.
d. lactose.
80. RNA contains the sugar
a. ribose.
b. deoxyribose.
c. glucose.
d. lactose.
81. Unlike DNA, RNA contains
a. adenine.
b. uracil.
c. phosphate groups.
d. thymine.
82. Unlike DNA, RNA contains
a. adenine.
b. uracil.
c. phosphate groups.
d. thymine.
83. Which of the following are found in both DNA
and RNA?
a. ribose, phosphate groups, and adenine
b. deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and
guanine
c. phosphate groups, guanine, and cytosine
d. phosphate groups, guanine, and thymine
84. Which of the following are found in both DNA
and RNA?
a. ribose, phosphate groups, and adenine
b. deoxyribose, phosphate groups, and
guanine
c. phosphate groups, guanine, and
cytosine
d. phosphate groups, guanine, and thymine
85. How many main types of RNA are there?
a. 1
b. 3
c. hundreds
d. thousands
86. How many main types of RNA are there?
a. 1
b. 3
c. hundreds
d. thousands
87. Which type(s) of RNA is(are) involved in protein
synthesis?
a. transfer RNA only
b. messenger RNA only
c. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA only
d. messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfe
RNA
88. Which type(s) of RNA is(are) involved in protein
synthesis?
a. transfer RNA only
b. messenger RNA only
c. ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA only
d. messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and
transfer RNA
89. What is produced during transcription?
a. RNA molecules
b. DNA molecules
c. RNA polymerase
d. proteins
90. What is produced during transcription?
a. RNA molecules
b. DNA molecules
c. RNA polymerase
d. proteins
91. What does the figure below show?
a. anticodons
b. the order in which
amino acids are linked
c. the code for
splicing mRNA
d. the genetic code
92. What does the figure below show?
a. anticodons
b. the order in which
amino acids are linked
c. the code for
splicing mRNA
d. the genetic code
93. How many codons are needed to specify three
amino acids?
a. 3
b. 6
c. 9
d. 12
94. How many codons are needed to specify three
amino acids?
a. 3
b. 6
c. 9
d. 12
95. What happens during the process of translation?
a. Messenger RNA is made from DNA.
b. The cell uses information from messenger
RNA to produce proteins.
c. Transfer RNA is made from messenger
RNA.
d. Copies of DNA molecules are made.
96. What happens during the process of translation?
a. Messenger RNA is made from DNA.
b. The cell uses information from
messenger RNA to produce proteins.
c. Transfer RNA is made from messenger
RNA.
d. Copies of DNA molecules are made.