DNA Extraction
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This document provides instructions for extracting DNA from dried split peas. The key steps are: 1. Blending the peas into a "pea soup" to separate the pea cells. 2. Adding dishwashing detergent to break open the cell and nuclear membranes and release the DNA. 3. Adding meat tenderizer enzymes to break apart proteins surrounding the DNA. 4. Pouring isopropyl alcohol on top to float the freed DNA up and out of the pea soup mixture.
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molecular marker RFLP, and application
INTRODUCTION
RFLP
Analysis technique
APPLICATION OF RFLP
FORENSIC
DISEASE PROGNOSIS
GENETIC COUNSELING
PEDIGREE
VARIETAL
Advantages of RFLP
Disadvantages of RFLP
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Gene Sequencing
Gene sequencing is the technique that determines the order of nucleotide bases in DNA. It allows researchers to read genetic information and understand genes. The first genome sequenced was a bacteriophage in 1977. Techniques have advanced from Sanger sequencing to second-generation sequencing using platforms like Illumina and third-generation single-molecule techniques. Gene sequencing has various applications in medicine, forensics, agriculture, cancer research and more. It is an important tool for understanding genomes and their relationship to traits and disease.
Pyrosequencing
Pyrosequencing is a sequencing by synthesis technique that uses a luciferase enzyme system to monitor DNA synthesis. It works by adding DNA polymerase and a single nucleotide to the DNA fragments, generating pyrophosphate that is converted to light. The light is detected and identifies the nucleotide incorporated. Pyrosequencing has applications in cDNA analysis, mutation detection, re-sequencing of disease genes, and identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms and typing bacteria and viruses.
Gene Silencing
This document provides an overview of gene silencing. It begins with definitions of gene silencing and discusses how it differs from gene knockout. The document then covers the short history of gene silencing research from the 1990s onwards. It describes different methods of gene silencing including transcriptional gene silencing and post-transcriptional gene silencing. Specific gene silencing techniques like RNA interference are explained in more detail. The document also includes a case study on gene silencing in petunias and discusses applications of RNAi.
Cloning
Cloning involves producing genetically identical copies of biological material such as DNA, cells, or whole organisms. The main steps of DNA cloning are: 1) cutting the DNA fragment to be cloned and the vector DNA with the same restriction enzymes, 2) joining the fragment to the vector via ligation, 3) introducing the recombinant DNA into host cells via transformation, 4) selecting transformed cells using antibiotic resistance markers on the vector, and 5) screening clones to identify those containing the inserted DNA fragment. Common cloning vectors include plasmids, which are small extra-chromosomal DNA molecules that replicate within host bacteria or yeast cells.
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Linkage analysis
Genetic linkage analysis and genotyping techniques are used to map disease genes to their chromosome locations. Linkage describes how closely linked genes are inherited together on a chromosome. Complete linkage means genes do not cross over, while incomplete linkage means genes can separate during crossing over. Linkage analysis uses techniques like recombination fraction, LOD scores, and Haldane mapping functions to statistically map traits to chromosomes. Genotyping determines genetic differences by examining DNA sequences, and can analyze whole genomes, targeted regions, or custom panels of variants. It enables studying SNPs, CNVs, and structural variants.
Genome Mapping
Genetic mapping uses genetic techniques like cross-breeding experiments to construct maps showing gene positions. Physical mapping uses molecular techniques to examine DNA directly and construct maps showing sequence features. Different DNA markers like RFLPs, SSLPs, SNPs can be used for genetic mapping. Techniques for physical mapping include restriction mapping, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and sequence tagged site (STS) mapping. Integrating genetic and physical maps provides high resolution mapping needed for genome sequencing.
Recommended
molecular marker RFLP, and application
INTRODUCTION
RFLP
Analysis technique
APPLICATION OF RFLP
FORENSIC
DISEASE PROGNOSIS
GENETIC COUNSELING
PEDIGREE
VARIETAL
Advantages of RFLP
Disadvantages of RFLP
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Gene Sequencing
Gene sequencing is the technique that determines the order of nucleotide bases in DNA. It allows researchers to read genetic information and understand genes. The first genome sequenced was a bacteriophage in 1977. Techniques have advanced from Sanger sequencing to second-generation sequencing using platforms like Illumina and third-generation single-molecule techniques. Gene sequencing has various applications in medicine, forensics, agriculture, cancer research and more. It is an important tool for understanding genomes and their relationship to traits and disease.
Pyrosequencing
Pyrosequencing is a sequencing by synthesis technique that uses a luciferase enzyme system to monitor DNA synthesis. It works by adding DNA polymerase and a single nucleotide to the DNA fragments, generating pyrophosphate that is converted to light. The light is detected and identifies the nucleotide incorporated. Pyrosequencing has applications in cDNA analysis, mutation detection, re-sequencing of disease genes, and identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms and typing bacteria and viruses.
Gene Silencing
This document provides an overview of gene silencing. It begins with definitions of gene silencing and discusses how it differs from gene knockout. The document then covers the short history of gene silencing research from the 1990s onwards. It describes different methods of gene silencing including transcriptional gene silencing and post-transcriptional gene silencing. Specific gene silencing techniques like RNA interference are explained in more detail. The document also includes a case study on gene silencing in petunias and discusses applications of RNAi.
Cloning
Cloning involves producing genetically identical copies of biological material such as DNA, cells, or whole organisms. The main steps of DNA cloning are: 1) cutting the DNA fragment to be cloned and the vector DNA with the same restriction enzymes, 2) joining the fragment to the vector via ligation, 3) introducing the recombinant DNA into host cells via transformation, 4) selecting transformed cells using antibiotic resistance markers on the vector, and 5) screening clones to identify those containing the inserted DNA fragment. Common cloning vectors include plasmids, which are small extra-chromosomal DNA molecules that replicate within host bacteria or yeast cells.
Genomics: Organization of Genome, Strategies of Genome Sequencing, Model Plan...
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Linkage analysis
Genetic linkage analysis and genotyping techniques are used to map disease genes to their chromosome locations. Linkage describes how closely linked genes are inherited together on a chromosome. Complete linkage means genes do not cross over, while incomplete linkage means genes can separate during crossing over. Linkage analysis uses techniques like recombination fraction, LOD scores, and Haldane mapping functions to statistically map traits to chromosomes. Genotyping determines genetic differences by examining DNA sequences, and can analyze whole genomes, targeted regions, or custom panels of variants. It enables studying SNPs, CNVs, and structural variants.
Genome Mapping
Genetic mapping uses genetic techniques like cross-breeding experiments to construct maps showing gene positions. Physical mapping uses molecular techniques to examine DNA directly and construct maps showing sequence features. Different DNA markers like RFLPs, SSLPs, SNPs can be used for genetic mapping. Techniques for physical mapping include restriction mapping, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and sequence tagged site (STS) mapping. Integrating genetic and physical maps provides high resolution mapping needed for genome sequencing.
Genome organisation in eukaryotes...........!!!!!!!!!!!
This document discusses the organization of eukaryotic genomes. It explains that eukaryotic genomes are much larger than prokaryotic genomes, with most of the DNA being non-coding. Eukaryotic genomes contain multiple linear chromosomes, introns, repetitive sequences, and both coding and non-coding RNA genes. The document also describes different types of repetitive elements like tandem repeats, transposons, retrotransposons, LINEs, SINEs and their roles in increasing genome size. Overall, the document provides an overview of the complex structure of eukaryotic genomes compared to simpler prokaryotic genomes.
Application of pcr
PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is used to create millions of copies of DNA fragments through repeated cycles of heating and cooling, allowing DNA to be amplified. The document discusses several applications of PCR including genetic engineering, bioremediation, detecting genetically modified organisms, diagnosing genetic diseases and infectious diseases, forensic analysis, evolutionary studies, and medical research. Specifically, PCR can be used to insert cloned DNA fragments into organisms, detect mutations, screen for genetic diseases before birth, detect pathogens in water supplies, and identify criminals through DNA fingerprinting.
DNA libraries
Genomic DNA libraries contain representative copies of all DNA fragments in an organism's genome, including both expressed and non-expressed sequences. They are constructed by isolating genomic DNA, fragmenting it, and cloning the fragments into suitable vectors like lambda phage or BACs. cDNA libraries contain only expressed sequences, as they are constructed by isolating mRNA from tissues, reverse transcribing it to cDNA, and cloning the cDNA fragments. Both library types are useful for gene discovery, sequencing, mapping genomes, and studying regulatory sequences.
Dot blotting
Dot blotting involves spotting small amounts of protein samples onto a nitrocellulose or PVDF membrane. The membrane is then blocked and incubated with primary and secondary antibodies. Finally, it is imaged using a chemiluminescent substrate. Dot blotting allows for a quick assay to test antibody binding and determine the appropriate primary antibody concentration for Western blot. It has advantages over Western blot in being faster and less expensive.
DNA- Basics on isolation, quantification, storage
This presentation gives an overall idea about the DNA, its history, protocol for isolation, methods of quantification and different storage conditions
Genome organisation
The document provides information about eukaryotic genome organization. It discusses that eukaryotic DNA is organized into chromosomes that are linear molecules located within the nucleus. The genome contains both coding and non-coding DNA sequences. It also describes various repetitive elements like transposons that make up a significant portion of the genome. Mobile elements can move within genomes and have contributed to genetic variation.
Gene sequencing methods
This document discusses various gene sequencing methods. It begins by introducing DNA and the importance of sequencing the genetic code. It then describes several early sequencing techniques like Sanger sequencing using chain termination or chemical cleavage. It discusses the need for sequencing to understand genetic conditions. The document also covers topics like genome sequencing, genomics, and high-throughput sequencing techniques like dye-terminator sequencing which replaced radioactive labels with fluorescent labels to automate the process.
Pcr and its applications in cloning
PCR can be used for cloning, DNA fingerprinting, gene expression analysis, DNA sequencing, and more. It works by amplifying a specific region of DNA through repeated heating and cooling cycles. This allows very small amounts of DNA to be exponentially multiplied, enabling various applications. PCR was invented in 1983 by Kary Mullis and revolutionized molecular biology.
ISOLATION OF RNA
The document discusses the process of isolating RNA from cells and tissues using TRIzol Reagent. TRIzol works by maintaining RNA integrity during tissue homogenization while disrupting cells. Chloroform separates the solution into aqueous and organic phases after centrifugation, with RNA remaining in the aqueous phase. RNA is then precipitated with isopropyl alcohol and can be used in downstream applications after being washed with ethanol and dissolved in water. The five step procedure involves homogenization, phase separation, RNA precipitation, washing, and dissolving the RNA.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing
This document discusses DNA sequencing methods. It describes the Maxam-Gilbert sequencing method developed in 1976-1977 which uses chemical modification and cleavage of DNA at specific bases, followed by electrophoresis to separate fragments by size. It also mentions the popular Sanger sequencing method. The procedure for Maxam-Gilbert sequencing involves labeling DNA, cleaving it with chemicals, running the fragments on a gel, and analyzing the results to deduce the DNA sequence. Advantages include no premature termination and ability to sequence stretches not possible with enzymatic methods, while disadvantages include use of radioactivity and toxic chemicals.
Southern blotting
Southern blotting is a technique used to detect specific DNA sequences. It involves separating DNA fragments by size via gel electrophoresis, transferring them to a membrane, and using a labeled probe to hybridize to the target sequence. The probe binds only to complementary DNA fragments, allowing their detection and location on the membrane via autoradiography. Key steps include restriction enzyme digestion of DNA, gel electrophoresis, membrane transfer, probe hybridization, and x-ray film development to visualize hybridized fragments. Southern blotting is used for applications like mutation detection, gene rearrangement studies, and forensic analysis.
DNA isolation
1. Genetics plays an important role in medicine through studies of inheritance patterns, gene mapping, analysis of disease mechanisms, and diagnosis/treatment of genetic diseases like gene therapy.
2. DNA isolation involves extracting DNA from samples and separating it from other cell components. It is used for scientific research, medicine like outbreak tracing, and forensic science like identification. Various methods disrupt cells, remove proteins, and recover DNA.
3. DNA purification removes contaminants and avoids DNA degradation. Key steps are cell lysis, contaminant removal through various separation techniques, and DNA concentration. Evaluation assesses concentration, purity through absorbance ratios, and degradation using gel electrophoresis.
DNA Replication
DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself to produce identical daughter molecules. Some key points:
- The Meselson-Stahl experiment provided evidence that replication is semiconservative.
- Replication begins at the origin and proceeds bidirectionally. DNA polymerase is the main enzyme that carries out replication.
- Replication in eukaryotes involves multiple origins of replication, several DNA polymerases, and other proteins like PCNA and RFC. It also must coordinate with packaging DNA into chromatin and replication of mitochondrial DNA.
- Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic replication include the number of replication forks, presence of histones, and size of Okazaki fragments.
Post translational modification
This document discusses post-translational modifications (PTMs), which are enzymatic modifications of proteins after translation. It describes various types of PTMs like trimming, covalent attachments through phosphorylation, glycosylation, sulfation, methylation, and hydroxylation. The importance of PTMs in regulating protein function and cellular processes is highlighted. Detection methods for PTMs like mass spectrometry and fluorescent staining are also mentioned.
Dna library
A DNA library is a collection of cloned restriction fragments of the DNA of an organism.
Two kinds of libraries will be discussed: genomic libraries and complementary DNA (cDNA) libraries.
Genomic libraries ideally contain a copy of every DNA nucleotide sequence in the genome.
In contrast, cDNA libraries contain those DNA sequences that appear as mRNA molecules, and these differ from one cell type to another.
Sanger sequencing (DNA sequencing by ENZYMATIC METHOD)
Sanger sequencing is one of the DNA sequencing methods used to identify and determine the sequence (Nucleotide) of DNA .This is an enzymatic method of sequencing developed by Fred Sanger.
Repetitive sequences in the eukaryotic genome
Cot curve dispersed repeated DNA or interspersed repeated DNA tandem repeated DNA Long interspersed repeat sequences (LINEs) Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) satellite, minisatellite and microsatellite DNA Variable Number Tandem Repeat (or VNTR)
eukaryotic genome
This document discusses eukaryotic genomes. It begins by defining a genome and noting that eukaryotic DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers. These fibers condense into chromosomes during cell division. Histone modification through acetylation and methylation can relax or tighten chromatin structure to increase or decrease gene transcription. The document then discusses transcription, post-transcriptional modification, translation, and post-translational modification of proteins in eukaryotic cells.
Northern blotting
Northern blotting (RNA Dectection by botting process)
Southern and northern blotting comparison (similarities and differences)
Southern blotting
Southern blotting is a technique used to detect specific DNA sequences in a DNA sample. It involves separating DNA fragments by size via gel electrophoresis, transferring them to a membrane, and using a labeled probe to identify the DNA fragment of interest through hybridization and autoradiography. Key steps include restriction enzyme digestion of DNA, gel electrophoresis, transferring fragments to a membrane, hybridizing with a probe, washing unbound probe, and detecting the bound probe fragment. This allows researchers to identify specific DNA sequences and analyze DNA samples.
DNA Extraction
This document provides instructions for extracting DNA from dried split peas. It explains that blending the peas breaks open the pea cells. Dishwashing detergent is then added to break apart the cell and nuclear membranes, releasing the DNA. Meat tenderizer contains enzymes that break apart surrounding proteins to further isolate the DNA. Finally, a layer of isopropyl alcohol is added, causing the DNA to float to the top and be separated from the mixture.
Dna extraction 2
This document provides instructions for extracting DNA from dried split peas. The key steps are:
1. Blending the peas into a "pea soup" to separate the pea cells.
2. Adding dishwashing detergent to break open the cell and nuclear membranes and release the DNA inside.
3. Using meat tenderizer enzymes to break apart proteins surrounding the DNA.
4. Pouring isopropyl alcohol on top to float the freed DNA up and out of the pea soup mixture.
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This document discusses the organization of eukaryotic genomes. It explains that eukaryotic genomes are much larger than prokaryotic genomes, with most of the DNA being non-coding. Eukaryotic genomes contain multiple linear chromosomes, introns, repetitive sequences, and both coding and non-coding RNA genes. The document also describes different types of repetitive elements like tandem repeats, transposons, retrotransposons, LINEs, SINEs and their roles in increasing genome size. Overall, the document provides an overview of the complex structure of eukaryotic genomes compared to simpler prokaryotic genomes.
Application of pcr
PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is used to create millions of copies of DNA fragments through repeated cycles of heating and cooling, allowing DNA to be amplified. The document discusses several applications of PCR including genetic engineering, bioremediation, detecting genetically modified organisms, diagnosing genetic diseases and infectious diseases, forensic analysis, evolutionary studies, and medical research. Specifically, PCR can be used to insert cloned DNA fragments into organisms, detect mutations, screen for genetic diseases before birth, detect pathogens in water supplies, and identify criminals through DNA fingerprinting.
DNA libraries
Genomic DNA libraries contain representative copies of all DNA fragments in an organism's genome, including both expressed and non-expressed sequences. They are constructed by isolating genomic DNA, fragmenting it, and cloning the fragments into suitable vectors like lambda phage or BACs. cDNA libraries contain only expressed sequences, as they are constructed by isolating mRNA from tissues, reverse transcribing it to cDNA, and cloning the cDNA fragments. Both library types are useful for gene discovery, sequencing, mapping genomes, and studying regulatory sequences.
Dot blotting
Dot blotting involves spotting small amounts of protein samples onto a nitrocellulose or PVDF membrane. The membrane is then blocked and incubated with primary and secondary antibodies. Finally, it is imaged using a chemiluminescent substrate. Dot blotting allows for a quick assay to test antibody binding and determine the appropriate primary antibody concentration for Western blot. It has advantages over Western blot in being faster and less expensive.
DNA- Basics on isolation, quantification, storage
This presentation gives an overall idea about the DNA, its history, protocol for isolation, methods of quantification and different storage conditions
Genome organisation
The document provides information about eukaryotic genome organization. It discusses that eukaryotic DNA is organized into chromosomes that are linear molecules located within the nucleus. The genome contains both coding and non-coding DNA sequences. It also describes various repetitive elements like transposons that make up a significant portion of the genome. Mobile elements can move within genomes and have contributed to genetic variation.
Gene sequencing methods
This document discusses various gene sequencing methods. It begins by introducing DNA and the importance of sequencing the genetic code. It then describes several early sequencing techniques like Sanger sequencing using chain termination or chemical cleavage. It discusses the need for sequencing to understand genetic conditions. The document also covers topics like genome sequencing, genomics, and high-throughput sequencing techniques like dye-terminator sequencing which replaced radioactive labels with fluorescent labels to automate the process.
Pcr and its applications in cloning
PCR can be used for cloning, DNA fingerprinting, gene expression analysis, DNA sequencing, and more. It works by amplifying a specific region of DNA through repeated heating and cooling cycles. This allows very small amounts of DNA to be exponentially multiplied, enabling various applications. PCR was invented in 1983 by Kary Mullis and revolutionized molecular biology.
ISOLATION OF RNA
The document discusses the process of isolating RNA from cells and tissues using TRIzol Reagent. TRIzol works by maintaining RNA integrity during tissue homogenization while disrupting cells. Chloroform separates the solution into aqueous and organic phases after centrifugation, with RNA remaining in the aqueous phase. RNA is then precipitated with isopropyl alcohol and can be used in downstream applications after being washed with ethanol and dissolved in water. The five step procedure involves homogenization, phase separation, RNA precipitation, washing, and dissolving the RNA.
Maxam–Gilbert sequencing
This document discusses DNA sequencing methods. It describes the Maxam-Gilbert sequencing method developed in 1976-1977 which uses chemical modification and cleavage of DNA at specific bases, followed by electrophoresis to separate fragments by size. It also mentions the popular Sanger sequencing method. The procedure for Maxam-Gilbert sequencing involves labeling DNA, cleaving it with chemicals, running the fragments on a gel, and analyzing the results to deduce the DNA sequence. Advantages include no premature termination and ability to sequence stretches not possible with enzymatic methods, while disadvantages include use of radioactivity and toxic chemicals.
Southern blotting
Southern blotting is a technique used to detect specific DNA sequences. It involves separating DNA fragments by size via gel electrophoresis, transferring them to a membrane, and using a labeled probe to hybridize to the target sequence. The probe binds only to complementary DNA fragments, allowing their detection and location on the membrane via autoradiography. Key steps include restriction enzyme digestion of DNA, gel electrophoresis, membrane transfer, probe hybridization, and x-ray film development to visualize hybridized fragments. Southern blotting is used for applications like mutation detection, gene rearrangement studies, and forensic analysis.
DNA isolation
1. Genetics plays an important role in medicine through studies of inheritance patterns, gene mapping, analysis of disease mechanisms, and diagnosis/treatment of genetic diseases like gene therapy.
2. DNA isolation involves extracting DNA from samples and separating it from other cell components. It is used for scientific research, medicine like outbreak tracing, and forensic science like identification. Various methods disrupt cells, remove proteins, and recover DNA.
3. DNA purification removes contaminants and avoids DNA degradation. Key steps are cell lysis, contaminant removal through various separation techniques, and DNA concentration. Evaluation assesses concentration, purity through absorbance ratios, and degradation using gel electrophoresis.
DNA Replication
DNA replication is the process by which DNA copies itself to produce identical daughter molecules. Some key points:
- The Meselson-Stahl experiment provided evidence that replication is semiconservative.
- Replication begins at the origin and proceeds bidirectionally. DNA polymerase is the main enzyme that carries out replication.
- Replication in eukaryotes involves multiple origins of replication, several DNA polymerases, and other proteins like PCNA and RFC. It also must coordinate with packaging DNA into chromatin and replication of mitochondrial DNA.
- Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic replication include the number of replication forks, presence of histones, and size of Okazaki fragments.
Post translational modification
This document discusses post-translational modifications (PTMs), which are enzymatic modifications of proteins after translation. It describes various types of PTMs like trimming, covalent attachments through phosphorylation, glycosylation, sulfation, methylation, and hydroxylation. The importance of PTMs in regulating protein function and cellular processes is highlighted. Detection methods for PTMs like mass spectrometry and fluorescent staining are also mentioned.
Dna library
A DNA library is a collection of cloned restriction fragments of the DNA of an organism.
Two kinds of libraries will be discussed: genomic libraries and complementary DNA (cDNA) libraries.
Genomic libraries ideally contain a copy of every DNA nucleotide sequence in the genome.
In contrast, cDNA libraries contain those DNA sequences that appear as mRNA molecules, and these differ from one cell type to another.
Sanger sequencing (DNA sequencing by ENZYMATIC METHOD)
Sanger sequencing is one of the DNA sequencing methods used to identify and determine the sequence (Nucleotide) of DNA .This is an enzymatic method of sequencing developed by Fred Sanger.
Repetitive sequences in the eukaryotic genome
Cot curve dispersed repeated DNA or interspersed repeated DNA tandem repeated DNA Long interspersed repeat sequences (LINEs) Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) satellite, minisatellite and microsatellite DNA Variable Number Tandem Repeat (or VNTR)
eukaryotic genome
This document discusses eukaryotic genomes. It begins by defining a genome and noting that eukaryotic DNA is associated with histone proteins to form chromatin fibers. These fibers condense into chromosomes during cell division. Histone modification through acetylation and methylation can relax or tighten chromatin structure to increase or decrease gene transcription. The document then discusses transcription, post-transcriptional modification, translation, and post-translational modification of proteins in eukaryotic cells.
Northern blotting
Northern blotting (RNA Dectection by botting process)
Southern and northern blotting comparison (similarities and differences)
Southern blotting
Southern blotting is a technique used to detect specific DNA sequences in a DNA sample. It involves separating DNA fragments by size via gel electrophoresis, transferring them to a membrane, and using a labeled probe to identify the DNA fragment of interest through hybridization and autoradiography. Key steps include restriction enzyme digestion of DNA, gel electrophoresis, transferring fragments to a membrane, hybridizing with a probe, washing unbound probe, and detecting the bound probe fragment. This allows researchers to identify specific DNA sequences and analyze DNA samples.
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This document provides instructions for extracting DNA from dried split peas. It explains that blending the peas breaks open the pea cells. Dishwashing detergent is then added to break apart the cell and nuclear membranes, releasing the DNA. Meat tenderizer contains enzymes that break apart surrounding proteins to further isolate the DNA. Finally, a layer of isopropyl alcohol is added, causing the DNA to float to the top and be separated from the mixture.
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1. Blending the peas into a "pea soup" to separate the pea cells.
2. Adding dishwashing detergent to break open the cell and nuclear membranes and release the DNA inside.
3. Using meat tenderizer enzymes to break apart proteins surrounding the DNA.
4. Pouring isopropyl alcohol on top to float the freed DNA up and out of the pea soup mixture.
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This document provides information about the urinary system. It discusses the key functions and components of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. It also provides detailed information about kidney anatomy, the internal structures of the kidney like the renal cortex and medulla, and the nephron, which is the functional unit of the kidney. Furthermore, it explains the multi-step process of urine formation within the nephron and kidney.
Fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers
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Muhammad Iqbal Khan
SS Biology
Email ID:mikhan1313@yahoo.com
0923135448175
Flower Morphology
Flower Morphology
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Mutualism and commensalism
Mutualistic relationships between species can have significant ecological consequences. Leaf-cutter ants cultivate fungi for food in underground gardens. This mutualism involves three partners - the ants, fungi, and bacteria that live on the ants. The fungi help break down plant material for the ants' nutrition, while the bacteria may provide secretions the ants use for food. This complex relationship recycles nutrients in tropical forests and influences soil properties and plant growth. However, the mutualism is threatened by specialized parasites that can destroy the fungal gardens. The ecological impacts of these ants, from nutrient cycling to effects on primary productivity, demonstrate the wide-ranging effects of species interactions.
The skeletal system
The skeletal system has several important functions including support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation. The skeletal system is made up of 206 bones that are classified as long, short, flat, or irregular. Long bones have a diaphysis, epiphyses, and contain red or yellow marrow. Bones are made up of compact and spongy bone and have microscopic structures including osteons, lacunae, and canaliculi. The skeletal system includes the axial skeleton which is made up of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, as well as the appendicular skeleton consisting of the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. Joint
Cell reproduction
The document discusses mitosis and meiosis. It defines mitosis as a type of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells. It describes the four phases of mitosis - interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Meiosis is defined as a type of cell division that produces four sex cells or gametes with half the number of chromosomes as the original cell. The two divisions of meiosis are meiosis I and meiosis II.
Cell cycle & cell division
The document discusses the cell cycle and cell division processes of mitosis and meiosis. It defines the main phases of each process and compares the key differences between mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis involves one cell division producing two identical daughter cells, while meiosis involves two cell divisions producing four non-identical haploid daughter cells. The stages of each process including interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase are outlined in detail. Diagrams and animations are provided to illustrate each phase.
Bioenergetics
The study of energy in living systems (environments) and the organisms (plants and animals) that utilize them
Basic genetics
This document provides information on genetic concepts including genes, DNA, chromosomes, genotypes and phenotypes. It defines key terms and describes patterns of inheritance such as dominant, recessive, X-linked, autosomal and codominant traits. Examples are given of human genetic disorders and their inheritance patterns. Questions at the end test understanding of calculating inheritance probabilities and determining modes of inheritance from pedigree charts.
Angiosperms and gymnosperms
There are two main types of seed plants - gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms reproduce using cones instead of flowers and include cycads, ginkgos, conifers, and gnetophytes. Angiosperms are the largest group of plants and reproduce using flowers containing sepals, petals, stamens, and a pistil. Pollination occurs when pollen from the stamen sticks to the stigma of the pistil, and fertilization happens when the pollen joins with an ovule in the ovary. Seeds then develop inside the ovary and are dispersed in different ways depending on the plant.
Angiosperms and gymnosperms
There are two main types of seed plants - gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms reproduce using cones instead of flowers and include cycads, ginkgos, conifers, and gnetophytes. Angiosperms are the largest group of plants and reproduce using flowers containing sepals, petals, stamens, and a pistil. Pollination occurs when pollen from the stamen sticks to the stigma on the pistil, and fertilization happens when the pollen joins with an ovule in the ovary. Seeds then develop inside the ovary and are dispersed in different ways depending on the plant.
Angiosperms and gymnosperms
There are two main types of seed plants - gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms reproduce using cones instead of flowers and include cycads, ginkgos, conifers, and gnetophytes. Angiosperms are the largest group of plants and reproduce using flowers containing sepals, petals, stamens, and a pistil. Pollination occurs when pollen from the stamen sticks to the stigma on the pistil, and fertilization happens when the pollen joins with an ovule in the ovary. Seeds then develop inside the ovary and are dispersed in different ways depending on the plant.
Osmoregulation
This document discusses osmoregulation and the control of water balance in mammals. It explains that mammals have fluid compartments including blood plasma, tissue fluid, and cytoplasm that exchange water and ions through surfaces like lungs, intestines, skin, and kidneys. It also outlines the inputs and outputs that influence fluid balance, such as drinking, breathing, sweating, and urinating. Additionally, it describes how dehydration triggers hormonal responses to conserve water through thirst and reduced urination, while hyperhydration triggers increased urination to restore fluid balance.
Global warming
Global warming is caused by the greenhouse effect, where gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide trap heat in the atmosphere. The levels of these greenhouse gases have increased since the industrial revolution due to human activities like burning fossil fuels and deforestation. This has led to rising global temperatures and sea levels, and more extreme weather. While some effects of climate change can be mitigated, human population growth and consumption patterns are ultimately unsustainable and could lead to the decline or collapse of human societies if environmental resources are overexploited, as seen in historical examples like Easter Island.
Photosynthesis by iqbal1313
By the end of this lecture you will be able to:
Understand that ENERGY can be transformed from one form to another.
Know that energy exist in two forms; free energy - available for doing work or as heat - a form unavailable for doing work.
Appreciate that the Sun provides most of the energy needed for life on Earth.
Explain why photosynthesis is so important to energy and material flow for life on earth.
Know why plants tend to be green in appearance.
Equate the organelle of photosynthesis in eukaryotes with the chloroplast.
Describe the organization of the chloroplast.
Understand that photosynthesis is a two fold process composed of the light-dependent reactions (i.e., light reactions) and the light independent reactions (i.e. Calvin Cycle or Dark Reactions).
Tell where the light reactions and the CO2 fixation reactions occur in the chloroplast.
Define chlorophylls giving their basic composition and structure.
Draw the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll and compare it to the action spectrum of photosynthesis.
Define the Reaction Centers and Antennae and describe how it operates.
Describe cyclic photophosphorylation of photosynthesis.
Describe noncyclic photophosphorylation of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis 1
Photosynthesis uses light energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds like glucose. It occurs in two stages - the light-dependent reactions where light energy is captured to make ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions where CO2 is incorporated into organic compounds through the Calvin cycle. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and other pigments that absorb light for use in the photosystems. The energy from light drives electron transport and chemiosmosis to produce ATP, then electrons are transferred to NADP+ to form NADPH. These products fuel the Calvin cycle to reduce CO2 into glucose using the energy from ATP and NADPH.
Parts of a plant
1) The document discusses the parts of a plant and their functions. Roots take in water and nutrients, stems move water and nutrients through the plant, and leaves use sunlight to make food.
2) Flowers produce fruits containing seeds. Seeds come in many shapes and sizes and are scattered by wind, water, animals or planting.
3) When conditions are right, a seed will germinate and a seedling will grow from the seed. The seedling develops roots, stem and leaves and the process repeats as it produces seeds of its own.
DNA.......All Life Informations Stored Here!
DNA is the molecule that stores and transmits genetic information from one generation to the next. It has a double helix structure resembling a twisted ladder, with sugars on the outside and pairs of nitrogen bases forming the rungs. There are four bases - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine - which only pair in certain combinations (A pairs with T, and C pairs with G). DNA replication is the process where a DNA molecule makes an exact duplicate of itself.
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DNA Extraction
- 2. MATERIALS • Dried split peas • Dishwashing detergent • Isopropyl alcohol • Meat tenderizer • Small cup or beaker • Spoon
- 3. Start with the peas
- 4. Blend the peas with water and a little salt until you have “pea soup”
- 5. Why do we blend the peas? • The blender separates the pea CELLS from each other
- 6. Put the strained pea soup in a cup Add a squirt of dishwashing detergent
- 7. Let the mixture sit for 5 minutes
- 8. What does the detergent do? • Each pea cell is surrounded by a cell membrane • DNA is in the nucleus of a cell, which is also surrounded by a membrane
- 9. The membranes must be broken open in order to get the DNA out of the cell
- 10. Detergent: • Breaks apart membranes by attaching to the lipids (fats) & proteins in the membranes
- 11. The cell and nuclear membranes have been broken apart, as well as all of the organelle membranes, such as those around the mitochondria and chloroplasts. So what is left? • Proteins • Carbohydrates (sugars) • DNA
- 12. Add a pinch of meat tenderizer to the mixture
- 13. Why? • Meat tenderizer is an ENZYME – A protein that helps chemical reactions happen more quickly • The enzymes in meat tenderizer break apart proteins
- 14. The DNA in the nucleus is surrounded by proteins
- 15. The meat tenderizer cuts away the proteins from the DNA
- 16. Stir very, very GENTLY!
- 17. Tilt your cup & slowly pour a layer of alcohol on top of the pea soup mixture • DNA will float up into the alcohol from the pea soup