This document provides an overview of a course on Disaster and Value Management. The course covers basic concepts of disaster risk management, identifying different types of disasters, assessment tools, planning procedures, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. It is taught by Zerihun Yohannes and covers topics such as understanding hazards and disasters, disaster risk theories and models, disaster risk management models, hazard and vulnerability assessments, and value chains. Common hazards in Ethiopia discussed include drought, flood, and volcanoes. Key concepts explained are disasters, risks, hazards, vulnerability, and the disaster risk equation.
1) Community-based disaster management (CBDM) empowers local communities to manage risks and disasters through their participation in prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery efforts.
2) Case studies of CBDM programs in several Asian countries found that key factors for success included meaningful community participation, capacity building, training, and integrating projects into long-term development plans.
3) Examples of CBDM programs discussed include rebuilding efforts after earthquakes in India and Afghanistan, retrofitting schools to make them earthquake resilient, and developing construction guidelines and training masons.
The document provides an outline for a training on risk assessment and risk management in development planning. It discusses defining key terms like hazards, exposure, vulnerability and risk. The risk assessment process involves identifying risks through developing scenarios, analyzing the probability and impacts of risks, and mapping risks. Risk assessment aims to support informed decision making at various timescales and spatial levels to improve disaster risk reduction and management.
The document summarizes a presentation by Dr. Riyanti Djalante on urban disaster risk reduction. It provides an overview of her background and research interests, which include conceptual frameworks for hazards, risks, vulnerability and resilience. It then outlines key concepts related to disaster risk reduction and frameworks such as the Hyogo Framework and Sendai Framework. The presentation discusses how cities face increased disaster risks due to factors like population concentration, infrastructure development, and effects of climate change. It analyzes the risks cities face from hazards like flooding, earthquakes and storms. The presentation emphasizes the importance of understanding risk and implementing measures to strengthen urban resilience and disaster preparedness.
Climate Change Adaptation with respect to Disaster Risk Reduction (Major cl...Jahangir Alam
ย
Climate change is a natural process related to the endogenic, exogenic and astronomical process of the universe.
Climate Change is a human-induced process related to GHG emission.
Role of women in disaster management Experience from Asia and Africa presente...Bibhuti Bhusan Gadanayak
ย
Role of women in disaster management
Experience from Asia and Africa
"To awaken the people, it is the women who must be awakened. Once she is on the move, the family moves, the village moves, the nation moves".
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
Socio economic impacts of natural disastersTiffany Newman
ย
Natural disasters have significant socio-economic impacts that vary depending on whether they occur in a less economically developed country (LEDC) or more economically developed country (MEDC). In LEDCs, disasters can have more severe consequences due to factors like lower GDP, weaker infrastructure, lack of resources, and unstable governments. This hinders recovery efforts. Major international aid organizations like the UN and Red Cross provide relief in disasters worldwide, but their assistance is also more crucial in LEDCs with limited response capacities. The wealth and development level of a nation therefore influences the scale of damage and recovery from natural hazards.
Community-based disaster management (CBDM) is an approach to building community capacity to assess vulnerabilities to hazards, develop strategies to prevent and mitigate impacts, and respond to and recover from disasters using local resources. Effective CBDM requires communities to be aware of risks, understand potential impacts, accept personal responsibility, and take action during warnings. It also requires partnerships between communities and outside organizations, community participation in all phases, empowerment of local people, and a sense of community ownership.
This document provides an overview of a course on Disaster and Value Management. The course covers basic concepts of disaster risk management, identifying different types of disasters, assessment tools, planning procedures, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. It is taught by Zerihun Yohannes and covers topics such as understanding hazards and disasters, disaster risk theories and models, disaster risk management models, hazard and vulnerability assessments, and value chains. Common hazards in Ethiopia discussed include drought, flood, and volcanoes. Key concepts explained are disasters, risks, hazards, vulnerability, and the disaster risk equation.
1) Community-based disaster management (CBDM) empowers local communities to manage risks and disasters through their participation in prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery efforts.
2) Case studies of CBDM programs in several Asian countries found that key factors for success included meaningful community participation, capacity building, training, and integrating projects into long-term development plans.
3) Examples of CBDM programs discussed include rebuilding efforts after earthquakes in India and Afghanistan, retrofitting schools to make them earthquake resilient, and developing construction guidelines and training masons.
The document provides an outline for a training on risk assessment and risk management in development planning. It discusses defining key terms like hazards, exposure, vulnerability and risk. The risk assessment process involves identifying risks through developing scenarios, analyzing the probability and impacts of risks, and mapping risks. Risk assessment aims to support informed decision making at various timescales and spatial levels to improve disaster risk reduction and management.
The document summarizes a presentation by Dr. Riyanti Djalante on urban disaster risk reduction. It provides an overview of her background and research interests, which include conceptual frameworks for hazards, risks, vulnerability and resilience. It then outlines key concepts related to disaster risk reduction and frameworks such as the Hyogo Framework and Sendai Framework. The presentation discusses how cities face increased disaster risks due to factors like population concentration, infrastructure development, and effects of climate change. It analyzes the risks cities face from hazards like flooding, earthquakes and storms. The presentation emphasizes the importance of understanding risk and implementing measures to strengthen urban resilience and disaster preparedness.
Climate Change Adaptation with respect to Disaster Risk Reduction (Major cl...Jahangir Alam
ย
Climate change is a natural process related to the endogenic, exogenic and astronomical process of the universe.
Climate Change is a human-induced process related to GHG emission.
Role of women in disaster management Experience from Asia and Africa presente...Bibhuti Bhusan Gadanayak
ย
Role of women in disaster management
Experience from Asia and Africa
"To awaken the people, it is the women who must be awakened. Once she is on the move, the family moves, the village moves, the nation moves".
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
Socio economic impacts of natural disastersTiffany Newman
ย
Natural disasters have significant socio-economic impacts that vary depending on whether they occur in a less economically developed country (LEDC) or more economically developed country (MEDC). In LEDCs, disasters can have more severe consequences due to factors like lower GDP, weaker infrastructure, lack of resources, and unstable governments. This hinders recovery efforts. Major international aid organizations like the UN and Red Cross provide relief in disasters worldwide, but their assistance is also more crucial in LEDCs with limited response capacities. The wealth and development level of a nation therefore influences the scale of damage and recovery from natural hazards.
Community-based disaster management (CBDM) is an approach to building community capacity to assess vulnerabilities to hazards, develop strategies to prevent and mitigate impacts, and respond to and recover from disasters using local resources. Effective CBDM requires communities to be aware of risks, understand potential impacts, accept personal responsibility, and take action during warnings. It also requires partnerships between communities and outside organizations, community participation in all phases, empowerment of local people, and a sense of community ownership.
The document provides an introduction to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. It was adopted in 2015 at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan. The framework aims to reduce disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health. It contains 7 global targets, 13 guiding principles, and 4 priorities for action to guide multi-hazard disaster risk management. The document also discusses how disaster risk reduction is linked to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.
This document discusses disaster mitigation and management in India. It begins by defining what constitutes a disaster and provides examples of different types of natural and man-made disasters that occur in India. It then outlines the four phases of disaster management: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. For each phase, it provides details on the goals and activities involved. It also discusses the role of risk assessment and developing an integrated warning and response system to help manage disasters, with a focus on tropical cyclones. Overall, the document outlines India's vulnerability to various disasters and the framework for managing disasters in the country.
Presented by: Sheikh Mohammed Tauhidul Islam
4.4 Communication and outreach
ย
The session will focus on key considerations and best practices in communication and outreach in the formulation and implementation of NAPs. It will look at such issues as the purpose, objectives, channels for communications and outreach, and the role that media can play. It will also include examples from countries on their communication and outreach programmes.
GPS and its use in vehicle movement study in Earthquake Disaster ManagementMayur Rahangdale
ย
What is GPS?
GPS Segments
Pseudo โ Random Numbers (PRN)
Coarse acquisition (C/A) code
P code (Precision or Protected code)
P code (Precision or Protected code)
GPS Trilateration
EARTHQUAKE DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster Management Cycle
ADVANTAGE OF GPS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
GPS LIMITATION IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
HOW DOES GPS PLAY A ROLE IN EARTHQUAKE RESCUE?
Case Study - Great East Japan Earthquake in Ishinomaki City, Japan -11 March 2011.
This document discusses hazard risk and vulnerability. It defines hazard, types of hazards, and classifications of hazards. Natural and human-induced hazards are discussed. Vulnerability is defined as conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors that increase susceptibility to hazards. Vulnerability assessment aims to identify who and what is vulnerable. Risk is the probability of losses from hazard and vulnerability interactions. Risk is reduced by decreasing vulnerability and increasing capacity. Hazard, vulnerability and risk analysis is used to assess risks and inform emergency preparedness and response.
Indegenious knowledge in disaster risk reductionIndependent
ย
Members provided examples of indigenous knowledge used for disaster risk management in India and Indonesia. In India, some communities use traditional methods for weather forecasting and disaster warnings. In Indonesia and India, unusual animal behaviors or environmental changes are sometimes used as warning signs for disasters like tsunamis and earthquakes. Respondents also described traditional agricultural practices, housing construction techniques, and other social and economic coping strategies used by indigenous communities. They emphasized the importance of understanding, respecting, and building upon existing indigenous knowledge and social systems for effective community-based disaster management.
The institutions for disaster management in bangladeshMd. Ayatullah Khan
ย
The document discusses the institutions for disaster management in Bangladesh. It outlines several national level institutions, including the National Disaster Management Advisory Forum, National Disaster Management Council, Inter-Ministerial Disaster Management Coordination Committee, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Department of Disaster Management, National Disaster Response Coordination Group, and Cyclone Preparedness Programme Implementation Board. It also discusses sub-national institutions like the District Disaster Management Committee, Upazila Disaster Management Committee, City Corporation Disaster Management Committee, and Pourashava Disaster Management Committee that operate at local levels. These institutions work to manage disasters through prevention, emergency response, and post-disaster recovery efforts in Bangladesh.
The document discusses key concepts related to disasters including definitions of disaster, hazard, vulnerability and risk. It defines disaster as any occurrence that causes damage, loss of life or deterioration of health on a large scale requiring an extraordinary response. A hazard is defined as a natural or human-made event that has the potential to cause disruption, while a disaster is the consequence of a hazard being realized. Vulnerability is described as characteristics of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to harm from hazards. Risk is a function of threats exploiting vulnerabilities and is the probability that a hazard will damage assets or disrupt a community based on their nature and proximity. The document also categorizes different types of natural and human-made disasters and provides a
The document discusses the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), which is a 10-year plan adopted by UN Member States in 2005 to make nations and communities more resilient to disasters. It aimed to substantially reduce disaster losses by 2015 through cooperation across governments, agencies, and other partners. The HFA outlined five priorities for action and provided principles and strategies to achieve disaster resilience at local, national, regional and international levels.
Communities are the first responders in case of any disaster. Therefore, a community-based disaster risk management approach should be the core of any risk reduction approach. Community based disaster risk management approach (CBDRM) is a process, which leads to a locally appropriate and locally โownedโ strategy for disaster preparedness & risk reduction. Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) is the result of this realization and aims to create opportunities and build partnerships with the communities to establish disaster-resilient societies.
This document outlines the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The framework was adopted at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan in 2015. It aims to substantially reduce disaster risk and losses over the next 15 years. The framework establishes seven global targets related to reducing mortality and losses from disasters. It also sets a goal of preventing new and reducing existing disaster risks through various economic, structural, legal and other measures to reduce exposure and vulnerability to hazards.
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): Indigenous Coping MechanismAsif Sultan Razu
ย
Indigenous coping mechanisms for disaster risk reduction can be categorized into four broad groups: economic/material, technological, social/organizational, and cultural. Economic/material coping includes practices like economic diversification, storing food, and savings. Technological coping involves land management strategies and adapting to repeated disasters. Social/organizational coping relies on kinship networks, mutual aid groups, families, and communities providing charity. Cultural coping comprises faith and religious beliefs as well as recognizing religious institutions.
The document discusses disaster management, including defining disaster management and outlining activities that take place before, during, and after a disaster. It describes disaster preparedness measures like hazard mapping and building codes that can reduce impacts. Key government agencies involved in disaster management in India are identified, such as the National Disaster Management Authority and National Disaster Response Force. International organizations that provide disaster relief are also mentioned, including the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Australia Aid, and the International Organization for Migration.
The Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (CDMP II) in Bangladesh aimed to mainstream disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation across government sectors to make development more resilient. It worked with 13 departments and 1 ministry, investing in partnerships and capacity building. Key achievements include training over 30,000 government professionals, establishing early warning systems, and incorporating disaster risk reduction into national education curricula. The program demonstrated the value of collaborative efforts to integrate resilience planning across sectors.
The Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction was held from 14 to 18 March 2015 in Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. Several thousand participants attended, including at related events linked to the World Conference under the umbrella of building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters. The United Nations General Assembly Resolution for 2013 on International Strategy for Disaster Reduction states that the World Conference will result in a concise, focused, forward-looking, and action-oriented outcome document and will have the following objectives:
* To complete assessment and review of the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action;
* To consider the experience gained through the regional and national strategies/institutions and plans for disaster risk reduction and their recommendations as well as relevant regional agreements within the implementation of the Hyogo Framework of Action;
* To adopt a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction;
* To identify modalities of cooperation based on commitments to implement a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction;
* To determine modalities to periodically review the implementation of a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction.
Presentation courtesy of Dr Walter Hays, Global Alliance for Disaster Reduction
This document discusses disaster mitigation and management. It begins by outlining the objectives of disaster mitigation and management. It then defines disaster management as a process aimed at reducing losses from hazards and assisting victims. The four phases of disaster management are described as mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Structural and non-structural mitigation strategies are discussed in detail, including selecting safe building sites, orientation of buildings, fire escapes, and stability of structures. The importance of mitigation in reducing risks and impacts of disasters is emphasized.
This document outlines the syllabus for a course on social planning approaches and issues. It includes:
1) An introduction to the course content which will explore social planning theory, history, and case studies of organizations.
2) Learning objectives which are to understand the theoretical foundations of social planning approaches and examine issues, debates, and methods in social planning practice.
3) Course requirements which include readings, short papers, and a case study presentation and report on a social planning organization.
Community Based Disaster Risk Assessment...... MINTU DEBNATH
ย
The document discusses community risk assessment and its key components. Community risk assessment provides a systematic process to identify, estimate, and rank local disaster risks. It involves four interrelated components: hazard assessment, vulnerability assessment, capacity assessment, and understanding people's perceptions of risk. Hazard assessment determines the likelihood of natural or human-made hazards. Vulnerability assessment identifies at-risk elements and why they are at risk. Capacity assessment identifies available resources for preparedness, mitigation and response.
More effective mitigation strategies could save tens of billions of dollars and tens of thousands of lives. Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) is a participatory process where local communities assess hazards, vulnerabilities and risks in order to prepare risk reduction and coping strategies. The process involves stakeholders analyzing hazard data and developing consensus on risk reduction actions.
Week 7 Emergency Simulation Assignment 2 page AMA format-cite a.docxcockekeshia
ย
Week 7: Emergency Simulation Assignment
2 page AMA format-cite all sources
Using the link below, participate in the online public health simulation of an emergency to integrate the knowledge you gained from this course in responding to a hypothetical emergency. ย ย
ยท Dirty Bomb! After the Blast โ A Public Health Simulation: https://cpheo1.sph.umn.edu/dbomb/index.asp
In the simulation, you worked as a public health professional and made decisions relating to communications, coordination, and response.ย In the assignment,
ยท Briefly describe your actions in the simulation relating to communications, coordination, and response.
ยท Consider how these same areas were handled during Hurricane Katrina as described in this weekโs reading: Case Study Response to Katrina (attached)
ยท Identify one area where you feel you were able to appropriately communicate, coordinate, or respond in this simulation and contrast your actions to those taken by personnel in Hurricane Katrina in the same area.
Provide your responses and the last screen as appropriate to the simulation to the Week 7 Assignment.
Microeconomics โ Week #5 Assignment
Costs Table
Directions: Fill in the table.
Units of Output
Total Costs
Total Fixed Costs
Total Variable Costs
Average Total Costs
Average Fixed Costs
Average Variable Costs
Marginal Costs
0
ย $1,000
1
1,200
2
1,350ย
3
1,550ย
4
1,900ย
5
2,300ย
6
2,750ย
7
3,250ย
8
3,800ย
9
4,400ย
1
*This case study accompanies the IRGC report โRisk Governance Deficits: An analysis and illustration of the most
common deficits in risk governanceโ.
The Response to Hurricane Katrina
By Donald P. Moynihan
1
Hurricane Katrina occurred four years after the attacks of 9/11, three years after the subsequent
creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and one year after the DHS had created
a National Response Plan. But despite the heightened attention to homeland security, the
response to Katrina was a failure. The world watched as government responders seemed unable
to offer basic protection from the ravages of nature. The titles of two congressional reports
summarised the sense of failure. A Select House Committee [House Report, 2006] identified โA
Failure of Initiativeโ while the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
[Senate Report, 2006] judged the United States โA Nation Still Unprepared.โ
The poor response arose from a failure to manage a number of risk factors. The risks of a major
hurricane striking New Orleans had been long considered, and there was enough warning of the
threat of Katrina that declarations of emergency were made days in advance of landfall. But
responders failed to convert this information into a level of preparation appropriate with the scope
of the impending disaster. The dispersed nature of authority in the US intergovernmental
response system further weakened response, as federal responders failed.
Every where in the world disaster strikes leaving hundreds and thousands dead and the devastating damage that these disasters leave behind has an enormous loss to the population of the state related to the disaster. Over the last decade the world has been engulfed with many environmental or natural disasters, although with a closer look they are human affiliated, brought about by technological and human activities that result or increase the chances of natural disasters.
The document provides an introduction to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. It was adopted in 2015 at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan. The framework aims to reduce disaster risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health. It contains 7 global targets, 13 guiding principles, and 4 priorities for action to guide multi-hazard disaster risk management. The document also discusses how disaster risk reduction is linked to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.
This document discusses disaster mitigation and management in India. It begins by defining what constitutes a disaster and provides examples of different types of natural and man-made disasters that occur in India. It then outlines the four phases of disaster management: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. For each phase, it provides details on the goals and activities involved. It also discusses the role of risk assessment and developing an integrated warning and response system to help manage disasters, with a focus on tropical cyclones. Overall, the document outlines India's vulnerability to various disasters and the framework for managing disasters in the country.
Presented by: Sheikh Mohammed Tauhidul Islam
4.4 Communication and outreach
ย
The session will focus on key considerations and best practices in communication and outreach in the formulation and implementation of NAPs. It will look at such issues as the purpose, objectives, channels for communications and outreach, and the role that media can play. It will also include examples from countries on their communication and outreach programmes.
GPS and its use in vehicle movement study in Earthquake Disaster ManagementMayur Rahangdale
ย
What is GPS?
GPS Segments
Pseudo โ Random Numbers (PRN)
Coarse acquisition (C/A) code
P code (Precision or Protected code)
P code (Precision or Protected code)
GPS Trilateration
EARTHQUAKE DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster Management Cycle
ADVANTAGE OF GPS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
GPS LIMITATION IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT
HOW DOES GPS PLAY A ROLE IN EARTHQUAKE RESCUE?
Case Study - Great East Japan Earthquake in Ishinomaki City, Japan -11 March 2011.
This document discusses hazard risk and vulnerability. It defines hazard, types of hazards, and classifications of hazards. Natural and human-induced hazards are discussed. Vulnerability is defined as conditions determined by physical, social, economic and environmental factors that increase susceptibility to hazards. Vulnerability assessment aims to identify who and what is vulnerable. Risk is the probability of losses from hazard and vulnerability interactions. Risk is reduced by decreasing vulnerability and increasing capacity. Hazard, vulnerability and risk analysis is used to assess risks and inform emergency preparedness and response.
Indegenious knowledge in disaster risk reductionIndependent
ย
Members provided examples of indigenous knowledge used for disaster risk management in India and Indonesia. In India, some communities use traditional methods for weather forecasting and disaster warnings. In Indonesia and India, unusual animal behaviors or environmental changes are sometimes used as warning signs for disasters like tsunamis and earthquakes. Respondents also described traditional agricultural practices, housing construction techniques, and other social and economic coping strategies used by indigenous communities. They emphasized the importance of understanding, respecting, and building upon existing indigenous knowledge and social systems for effective community-based disaster management.
The institutions for disaster management in bangladeshMd. Ayatullah Khan
ย
The document discusses the institutions for disaster management in Bangladesh. It outlines several national level institutions, including the National Disaster Management Advisory Forum, National Disaster Management Council, Inter-Ministerial Disaster Management Coordination Committee, Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, Department of Disaster Management, National Disaster Response Coordination Group, and Cyclone Preparedness Programme Implementation Board. It also discusses sub-national institutions like the District Disaster Management Committee, Upazila Disaster Management Committee, City Corporation Disaster Management Committee, and Pourashava Disaster Management Committee that operate at local levels. These institutions work to manage disasters through prevention, emergency response, and post-disaster recovery efforts in Bangladesh.
The document discusses key concepts related to disasters including definitions of disaster, hazard, vulnerability and risk. It defines disaster as any occurrence that causes damage, loss of life or deterioration of health on a large scale requiring an extraordinary response. A hazard is defined as a natural or human-made event that has the potential to cause disruption, while a disaster is the consequence of a hazard being realized. Vulnerability is described as characteristics of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to harm from hazards. Risk is a function of threats exploiting vulnerabilities and is the probability that a hazard will damage assets or disrupt a community based on their nature and proximity. The document also categorizes different types of natural and human-made disasters and provides a
The document discusses the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), which is a 10-year plan adopted by UN Member States in 2005 to make nations and communities more resilient to disasters. It aimed to substantially reduce disaster losses by 2015 through cooperation across governments, agencies, and other partners. The HFA outlined five priorities for action and provided principles and strategies to achieve disaster resilience at local, national, regional and international levels.
Communities are the first responders in case of any disaster. Therefore, a community-based disaster risk management approach should be the core of any risk reduction approach. Community based disaster risk management approach (CBDRM) is a process, which leads to a locally appropriate and locally โownedโ strategy for disaster preparedness & risk reduction. Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) is the result of this realization and aims to create opportunities and build partnerships with the communities to establish disaster-resilient societies.
This document outlines the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. The framework was adopted at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Sendai, Japan in 2015. It aims to substantially reduce disaster risk and losses over the next 15 years. The framework establishes seven global targets related to reducing mortality and losses from disasters. It also sets a goal of preventing new and reducing existing disaster risks through various economic, structural, legal and other measures to reduce exposure and vulnerability to hazards.
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): Indigenous Coping MechanismAsif Sultan Razu
ย
Indigenous coping mechanisms for disaster risk reduction can be categorized into four broad groups: economic/material, technological, social/organizational, and cultural. Economic/material coping includes practices like economic diversification, storing food, and savings. Technological coping involves land management strategies and adapting to repeated disasters. Social/organizational coping relies on kinship networks, mutual aid groups, families, and communities providing charity. Cultural coping comprises faith and religious beliefs as well as recognizing religious institutions.
The document discusses disaster management, including defining disaster management and outlining activities that take place before, during, and after a disaster. It describes disaster preparedness measures like hazard mapping and building codes that can reduce impacts. Key government agencies involved in disaster management in India are identified, such as the National Disaster Management Authority and National Disaster Response Force. International organizations that provide disaster relief are also mentioned, including the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, Australia Aid, and the International Organization for Migration.
The Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (CDMP II) in Bangladesh aimed to mainstream disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation across government sectors to make development more resilient. It worked with 13 departments and 1 ministry, investing in partnerships and capacity building. Key achievements include training over 30,000 government professionals, establishing early warning systems, and incorporating disaster risk reduction into national education curricula. The program demonstrated the value of collaborative efforts to integrate resilience planning across sectors.
The Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction was held from 14 to 18 March 2015 in Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan. Several thousand participants attended, including at related events linked to the World Conference under the umbrella of building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters. The United Nations General Assembly Resolution for 2013 on International Strategy for Disaster Reduction states that the World Conference will result in a concise, focused, forward-looking, and action-oriented outcome document and will have the following objectives:
* To complete assessment and review of the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action;
* To consider the experience gained through the regional and national strategies/institutions and plans for disaster risk reduction and their recommendations as well as relevant regional agreements within the implementation of the Hyogo Framework of Action;
* To adopt a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction;
* To identify modalities of cooperation based on commitments to implement a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction;
* To determine modalities to periodically review the implementation of a post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction.
Presentation courtesy of Dr Walter Hays, Global Alliance for Disaster Reduction
This document discusses disaster mitigation and management. It begins by outlining the objectives of disaster mitigation and management. It then defines disaster management as a process aimed at reducing losses from hazards and assisting victims. The four phases of disaster management are described as mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Structural and non-structural mitigation strategies are discussed in detail, including selecting safe building sites, orientation of buildings, fire escapes, and stability of structures. The importance of mitigation in reducing risks and impacts of disasters is emphasized.
This document outlines the syllabus for a course on social planning approaches and issues. It includes:
1) An introduction to the course content which will explore social planning theory, history, and case studies of organizations.
2) Learning objectives which are to understand the theoretical foundations of social planning approaches and examine issues, debates, and methods in social planning practice.
3) Course requirements which include readings, short papers, and a case study presentation and report on a social planning organization.
Community Based Disaster Risk Assessment...... MINTU DEBNATH
ย
The document discusses community risk assessment and its key components. Community risk assessment provides a systematic process to identify, estimate, and rank local disaster risks. It involves four interrelated components: hazard assessment, vulnerability assessment, capacity assessment, and understanding people's perceptions of risk. Hazard assessment determines the likelihood of natural or human-made hazards. Vulnerability assessment identifies at-risk elements and why they are at risk. Capacity assessment identifies available resources for preparedness, mitigation and response.
More effective mitigation strategies could save tens of billions of dollars and tens of thousands of lives. Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) is a participatory process where local communities assess hazards, vulnerabilities and risks in order to prepare risk reduction and coping strategies. The process involves stakeholders analyzing hazard data and developing consensus on risk reduction actions.
Week 7 Emergency Simulation Assignment 2 page AMA format-cite a.docxcockekeshia
ย
Week 7: Emergency Simulation Assignment
2 page AMA format-cite all sources
Using the link below, participate in the online public health simulation of an emergency to integrate the knowledge you gained from this course in responding to a hypothetical emergency. ย ย
ยท Dirty Bomb! After the Blast โ A Public Health Simulation: https://cpheo1.sph.umn.edu/dbomb/index.asp
In the simulation, you worked as a public health professional and made decisions relating to communications, coordination, and response.ย In the assignment,
ยท Briefly describe your actions in the simulation relating to communications, coordination, and response.
ยท Consider how these same areas were handled during Hurricane Katrina as described in this weekโs reading: Case Study Response to Katrina (attached)
ยท Identify one area where you feel you were able to appropriately communicate, coordinate, or respond in this simulation and contrast your actions to those taken by personnel in Hurricane Katrina in the same area.
Provide your responses and the last screen as appropriate to the simulation to the Week 7 Assignment.
Microeconomics โ Week #5 Assignment
Costs Table
Directions: Fill in the table.
Units of Output
Total Costs
Total Fixed Costs
Total Variable Costs
Average Total Costs
Average Fixed Costs
Average Variable Costs
Marginal Costs
0
ย $1,000
1
1,200
2
1,350ย
3
1,550ย
4
1,900ย
5
2,300ย
6
2,750ย
7
3,250ย
8
3,800ย
9
4,400ย
1
*This case study accompanies the IRGC report โRisk Governance Deficits: An analysis and illustration of the most
common deficits in risk governanceโ.
The Response to Hurricane Katrina
By Donald P. Moynihan
1
Hurricane Katrina occurred four years after the attacks of 9/11, three years after the subsequent
creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and one year after the DHS had created
a National Response Plan. But despite the heightened attention to homeland security, the
response to Katrina was a failure. The world watched as government responders seemed unable
to offer basic protection from the ravages of nature. The titles of two congressional reports
summarised the sense of failure. A Select House Committee [House Report, 2006] identified โA
Failure of Initiativeโ while the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
[Senate Report, 2006] judged the United States โA Nation Still Unprepared.โ
The poor response arose from a failure to manage a number of risk factors. The risks of a major
hurricane striking New Orleans had been long considered, and there was enough warning of the
threat of Katrina that declarations of emergency were made days in advance of landfall. But
responders failed to convert this information into a level of preparation appropriate with the scope
of the impending disaster. The dispersed nature of authority in the US intergovernmental
response system further weakened response, as federal responders failed.
Every where in the world disaster strikes leaving hundreds and thousands dead and the devastating damage that these disasters leave behind has an enormous loss to the population of the state related to the disaster. Over the last decade the world has been engulfed with many environmental or natural disasters, although with a closer look they are human affiliated, brought about by technological and human activities that result or increase the chances of natural disasters.
This document discusses comprehensive disaster management. It begins by defining a disaster and outlining the phases of disaster management: preparedness, impact, response, rehabilitation, and mitigation. It then describes different types of natural and man-made disasters. The major principles and framework of disaster management in Bangladesh are explained. The key institutions involved and phases of management are outlined. Major past disasters in Bangladesh are listed and the areas of concern and future directions for improving comprehensive disaster management are discussed.
4. dr. maharjan mainstreamlining drr and c adaptation makshaDPNet
ย
This document discusses integrating climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. It defines disaster risk reduction as efforts to reduce vulnerabilities and risks from hazards through prevention and limiting impacts. Climate adaptation is adjustments to natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climate changes. The document notes that poor and vulnerable groups, especially women, are most at risk from climate change impacts. It also presents the pressure and release model of progression of vulnerability and discusses classes of adaptation strategies like mobility, storage, diversification and communal pooling. The document concludes by providing guiding questions for mainstreaming climate change adaptation into disaster risk reduction planning and implementation.
Housing vulnerability, resilience and adaptation strategies to flood hazard a...Alexander Decker
ย
This document discusses housing vulnerability and resilience to flooding in Shiroro, Nigeria. It explores the flood challenges faced by the community and their coping strategies. The research used qualitative methods like questionnaires and focus groups. Key findings include that people rely on local techniques and expertise to deal with flooding, which are often rudimentary. Given flooding will continue, the study recommends a comprehensive flood risk assessment and plans to better address the problem.
A disaster is defined as any event, natural or man-made, that threatens lives and property and disrupts normal life. Disasters exceed the ability of affected communities and governments to cope. Hazards threaten people, structures, and assets and can cause disasters. Vulnerability is the likelihood of damage from a hazard due to factors like proximity and susceptibility. Risk is the probability of consequences from hazards people are exposed to. Disaster management involves coordination across organizations in preparedness, response, and recovery phases of disasters to reduce risks and improve capacity to handle disasters.
1) Natural disasters have significantly increased over the last few decades, affecting over 2 billion people and causing over $910 billion in damages globally. This trend is expected to continue with climate change.
2) Future natural disasters will likely have even greater impacts due to population growth, increasing urbanization, effects of climate change like sea level rise and extreme weather events. Developing countries are most vulnerable but developed countries face major economic impacts.
3) Effective response to increase in frequency and scale of natural disasters will challenge existing humanitarian system and require improved coordination between numerous responding entities.
This document provides an overview of basic concepts and frameworks related to disaster management in India. It defines key terms like disaster, hazard, risk, and vulnerability. It outlines the disaster management cycle of preparedness, relief, mitigation, rehabilitation and reconstruction. It also describes the types of disasters India faces, the vulnerability of different regions, and the institutional framework for disaster management at national, state and district levels as established by the Disaster Management Act of 2005.
Disaster Prevention,Mitigation & Adaptation : Approaches,Strategies and Pract...malihafairuz
ย
This document discusses disasters and their definitions. It defines a disaster as a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts a community and causes losses that exceed its ability to cope. Disasters can be natural or human-made. Natural disasters include hydro-meteorological events like floods and fires, as well as geophysical events like earthquakes and tsunamis. Human-made disasters result from human intent, negligence, or technological failures. The effects of disasters include loss of life, damage, disruption of services and livelihoods. Developing countries are most vulnerable to disasters. The impacts of disasters can be minimized through prevention, mitigation and adaptation strategies.
This document discusses disaster management and provides details on various types of natural and man-made disasters. It covers the national and international scenarios of disasters, highlighting some major disasters that have occurred in India and worldwide. It also describes the importance of disaster management and outlines the phases and methodology of disaster management. The administrative structure and warning/forecasting systems for disaster management in India are summarized. Key challenges in disaster management and education are also mentioned.
basic concept of disaster and disaster risk (PPT1).pptxWALTONMARBRUCAL
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This document provides information about disasters and disaster risk in the Philippines. It begins by defining disaster and explaining that the Philippines is prone to natural disasters like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and typhoons due to its location along the Ring of Fire. It distinguishes between natural hazards, which occur due to natural forces, and human-made induced hazards, which are caused by human activities. The document also defines key terms like risk, disaster risk, hazards, and disasters and explains how they relate to understanding risks and their impacts on communities in the Philippines.
This document discusses the unique challenges of responding to international disasters compared to complex emergencies. Some key points:
1) Disaster response requires operating in a "high-pressure cauldron" as needs are sudden and overwhelming, infrastructure is damaged, and the time to save lives is measured in hours, not days.
2) The physical conditions created by disasters, like damaged infrastructure and communications, impose limits on responders' ability to coordinate and deliver assistance.
3) National governments have primary responsibility for disaster response according to international law, but their capacity is often overwhelmed in large disasters, creating challenges for international coordination.
The document discusses the unique challenges of responding to international disasters. It describes how disaster sites become a "responders' cauldron" due to compressed timelines, damaged infrastructure, overwhelmed local authorities, and an influx of various responders. Effective response requires coordinating simultaneous relief phases across different locations and sectors, which poses difficulties given these complex conditions. Strengthening preparedness and coordination standards could help address barriers to response amid this high-pressure environment.
A Preliminary Assessment Of Social And Economic Impacts Associated With Hurri...Karla Adamson
ย
The document provides a preliminary assessment of the social and economic impacts of Hurricane Katrina. It summarizes that Katrina caused widespread destruction along the Gulf Coast through storm surge and winds, resulting in over 1,700 deaths. It also exacerbated preexisting social trends and inequalities. While the physical damage was largely inevitable given the region's environmental vulnerabilities, the human impacts are extremely complex. The region has a long history of human settlement in vulnerable areas that require extensive engineering protections, which have unintentionally contributed to land loss and increased risk over time. The devastation highlights the need for improved disaster response and long-term planning given the likelihood of more intense hurricanes and rising seas.
MSE 6301, Risk Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit I
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Analyze the concept of risk within emergency management.
1.1 Identify the various types of risks and hazards communities may face.
1.2 Explain why it is important for public and private sectors to understand how risks and hazards
can affect them.
1.3 Describe the importance of assessing a communityโs vulnerability and risk regarding disaster
events.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
1.1
Unit Lesson
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Unit I Essay
1.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Unit I Essay
1.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Unit I Essay
Reading Assignment
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Hazards, Vulnerability, and Disaster Risk
Unit Lesson
Community preparation for disasters is imperative for life safety, business continuity, and the ability to work
towards a quicker recovery in the event of a disaster. Each community experiences one form of hazard
(tornado, earthquake, hurricane, flooding, or chemical issue) or another, depending on the geographic region
where it is located. There are two types of hazards that are associated with emergency management: natural
hazards and man-made hazards. Natural hazards include hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, winter
storms, micro-bursts, and other natural phenomenon created by nature. Man-made hazards can be divided
into technological and sociological hazards. On the other hand, man-made hazards are those including
terrorist events, chemical leaks, transportation disasters, and many others that include willful intent to cause
harm or death (Kapucu & รzerdem, 2013).
It is important for both the public and private sectors to understand the types of hazards that impact
communities. The ability to train, educate, prepare, and respond to disasters allows the community to become
fully engaged in disaster awareness. Earthquakes are one of the most dangerous natural disasters since they
occur with frequency, cannot truly be predicted, and cause damage to infrastructure. Although earthquakes
cause a relatively low number of deaths, there is still damage incurred to buildings, pipelines, critical
infrastructure, and areas beneath the surface of the earth that are unable to be seen. Earthquakes have a
tendency to spawn other natural phenomena such as landslides, tsunamis, and dam failures that may cause
UNIT I STUDY GUIDE
Vulnerability, Hazards, and
Disaster Risk Assessment
MSE 6301, Risk Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
inland flooding in addition to the issues surrounding building and infrastructural damage
(Kapucu & รzerdem, 2013).
Hurricanes are one of the strongest forces of natural disasters that impact coastal regions. Hurricanes are
divided into categories one through five. The higher category number indicates higher wind speeds, more
damage, and possible catast ...
This document discusses various topics related to disaster management including:
1. Definitions of key terms like disaster, crisis, and casualty for reference.
2. The phases of the disaster cycle including mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery.
3. The health risks of disasters like trauma, disease outbreaks, and the importance of mass casualty management.
4. The need for emergency risk management for health systems to strengthen capacity for disaster response and ensure continued access to health services.
This document defines key concepts related to disaster risk, including how views of disasters have changed over time. It discusses how disasters were once seen as "Acts of God" but are now understood as resulting from interactions between natural hazards and human factors that influence vulnerability. The contemporary view sees disaster as a function of hazard occurrence, elements at risk, their vulnerability, and capacity to manage impacts. Disaster risk is represented by the equation of vulnerability x hazard/capacity. Hazards are defined as events that can cause harm, while risk considers the likelihood of hazards causing losses.
The document summarizes rights-based participatory risk assessment and planning (RiPRAP) for hazards, which involves community members examining hazards, vulnerabilities, capacities, and impacts on human and children's rights. It describes assessing the nature, speed of onset, frequency, duration, and force of hazards. It also outlines assessing vulnerabilities of elements at risk like people, structures, facilities, livelihoods and the environment, and the causes of vulnerabilities. Tools for assessment include maps, walks, calendars and interviews. The progression of vulnerability from underlying causes to unsafe conditions is depicted. Assessments of community capacities in times of crisis are also summarized.
Disaster management involves dealing with and avoiding both natural and man-made disasters through preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation efforts. It aims to reduce vulnerabilities and impacts through organized and sustained actions to analyze and manage hazards and the underlying risks. Key aspects of disaster management include preparedness before a disaster through activities like risk assessment, warning systems, and stockpiling resources; immediate response efforts during an event; and long-term rehabilitation and reconstruction work after an event to support regrowth. Effective disaster management requires coordination and planning across different levels of government, organizations, and communities.
Similar to Disaster Risk Reduction and Response Report (20)
Northumbria University RAG 'How To' Guide for Associates 2010-11Francesca Hughes
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As part of my role as RAG Associates' Coordinator, I created a step-by-step guide for students to set up their own RAG Associate, to raise money for a charity of their choice.
Adaptation for safer cities conference proceedings sep 2011Francesca Hughes
ย
The document summarizes the proceedings of the North East Asia โ UK International Conference and Study Tour on Adaptation for Safer Cities held from September 5-7, 2011 in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. The conference brought together academics and professionals from the UK, Japan, South Korea, and other parts of Asia to share knowledge on disaster risk reduction, safety, and resilience. Day 1 included opening remarks and presentations on approaches to disaster management in different countries. It also featured discussions on climate change adaptation, education for building resilient communities, and protecting cities from future risks. Days 2 and 3 consisted of study visits to emergency response facilities in the UK and meetings with government officials to discuss national crisis response strategies.
Project Management Report - Rehabilitation of Child SoldiersFrancesca Hughes
ย
Report written for MSc Disaster Management & Sustainable Development (Northumbria University, 2010-11).
Co-authors: Alberta Filaferro, Edward Bridge, Aaron Jamison
Report written for MSc Disaster Management & Sustainable Development (Northumbria University, 2010-11).
Co-authors: Katharine Timpson, Simon Steele, Adam Craggs
The document discusses websites that could be linked to from Aid Workers Network (AWN) in order to increase awareness of AWN's existence. 20 websites are proposed and described briefly, including their URLs and reasons for being appropriate links. The proposed websites provide information, resources, jobs, training and opportunities related to aid work, international development, volunteering, and non-profits.
Adaptation for Safer Cities Conference Proceedings Sep 2011Francesca Hughes
ย
The document provides an overview of the proceedings from a North East Asia โ UK International Conference and Study Tour on adaptation for safer cities.
The three-day event included opening presentations on approaches to disaster management in Korea and risk management activities of the OECD. Day one also included discussions on building resilience in the UK, climate change adaptation, and safety education. Day two involved study visits to emergency response sites in Newcastle. Day three included a visit to the Cabinet Office in London to learn about the UK's national crisis response. The conference aimed to foster knowledge sharing between countries on improving disaster resilience and adaptation.
Project Management - Rehabilitation of Child SoldiersFrancesca Hughes
ย
The document summarizes the armed conflict in Northern Uganda between the LRA rebels and government forces from 1986 to 2008. This caused over 2 million people to be displaced and more than 20,000 children to be abducted as child soldiers or slaves. While some internally displaced people and former child soldiers have returned home since 2008, their rehabilitation and reintegration presents complex challenges. One large IDP camp near Pajule hosted up to 24,000 residents for an average of 3 years but could not meet their basic needs, and addressing the social and economic issues is difficult.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
ย
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
ย
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
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In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
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The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
ย
(๐๐๐ ๐๐๐) (๐๐๐ฌ๐ฌ๐จ๐ง ๐)-๐๐ซ๐๐ฅ๐ข๐ฆ๐ฌ
๐๐ข๐ฌ๐๐ฎ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐๐ ๐๐ฎ๐ซ๐ซ๐ข๐๐ฎ๐ฅ๐ฎ๐ฆ ๐ข๐ง ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐ก๐ข๐ฅ๐ข๐ฉ๐ฉ๐ข๐ง๐๐ฌ:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
๐๐ฑ๐ฉ๐ฅ๐๐ข๐ง ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐๐ญ๐ฎ๐ซ๐ ๐๐ง๐ ๐๐๐จ๐ฉ๐ ๐จ๐ ๐๐ง ๐๐ง๐ญ๐ซ๐๐ฉ๐ซ๐๐ง๐๐ฎ๐ซ:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
1. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
Analyse one disaster using the
pressure and release model
Introduction
The Pressure and Release (PAR) model provides a framework for analysing disasters, in which
existing vulnerabilities within the affected population, rather than the intensity of the event itself,
lead to certain outcomes. The natural hazard is a trigger event, which exposes these
vulnerabilities and leads to some people suffering more than others. Hurricane Katrina in New
Orleans provides a good example of this, where one group of people โ primarily the poor, black
population โ was more severely affected than another group โ the better-off, white population.
There was much discussion in the media and public institutions about why the event played out
as it did, and the US government repeatedly stated that it was not abandoning citizens; but this
paper will argue that the effects of Hurricane Katrina were due to various causes and pressures,
which made certain sections of the population more vulnerable.
The PAR Model
There is growing literature showing that the impact of a disaster is a function of the event and
pre-existing conditions: the preparedness of government and individuals; emergency planning;
and the existing divisions and inequalities in society (Alexander, 2006). The Pressure and
Release model was formulated by Blaikie et al. (1994), and it states that a disaster occurs when
processes creating vulnerability meet with physical exposure to a hazard. The โreleaseโ occurs
when vulnerability is reduced, thus reducing the extent of the disaster.
Factors affecting vulnerability include access to resources and wealth, risk perceptions,
community structure, and emergency management which organises warning, planning and
response (Masozera et al., 2007).
Blaikie et al. (1994) and many other authors (Cannon, 2005; Alexander, 2006; Cutter, 2006;
Lukes, 2006; Mulcahy, 2006; Masozera et al., 2007; Schuemer-Cross & Taylor, 2009) have
argued that vulnerability is determined by social conditions and historical circumstances; and
that these conditions creating unequal exposure are perhaps more important than the hazard
itself (Masozera et al., 2007). Cannon (2005) argues that understanding the effects of a natural
hazard can only occur through understanding everyday life before the trigger event.
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2. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
The general PAR model is shown in Figure 1. The historical circumstances and social
conditions that determine vulnerability are divided into root causes, dynamic pressures, and
unsafe conditions. Root causes are โwell-established, widespread processes within a society
and world economyโ (Blaikie et al., 1994:24): the political and economic ideologies, which affect
the allocation and distribution of resources, and reflect the distribution of power. Dynamic
pressures are โprocesses and activities that translate the effects of root causes into the
vulnerability of unsafe conditionsโ (Blaikie et al., 1994:24). This effectively concerns access to
resources and the scope of social protection measures. Class and race relations are important.
Unsafe conditions are โthe specific forms in which the vulnerability of a population is expressed
in time and space in conjunction with a hazardโ (Blaikie et al., 1994:26), such as poor quality
housing and the actions of public institutions.
Figure 1: Pressure and Release Model
Root causes Dynamic Unsafe
pressures conditions
Limited
access to: Lack of:
Fragile physical
Power Local institutions
environment: Hazard
structures Training
Dangerous locations
Appropriate skills
Resources Unprotected Earthquake
Local
buildings and
investments
infrastructure High winds
Ideologies: Local markets
Political Press freedom (cyclone/
Fragile local hurricane/
systems Ethical standards
economy: typhoon)
in public life
Economic Livelihoods at risk
Human rights Risk
systems Low income levels Flooding
standards and =
Gender accountability Vulnerable society: Hazard + Volcanic
relations
Special groups at Vulnerability eruption
Human rights Macro forces:
risk
regimes Rapid population
Lack of local Landslide
growth
institution
Rapid
Lack of rights based Drought
urbanisation
approaches
Arms
expenditure Virus and
Public actions: pests
Debt repayment
Lack of disaster
schedules
preparedness
Deforestation
Prevalence of
Decline in soil
endemic disease
productivity
Source: Blaikie et a l. (1994)
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3. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
Hurricane Katrina
The PAR Model will be used to analyse Hurricane Katrina, which struck New Orleans in August
2005, as one set of physical conditions resulted in two different outcomes. This paper will argue
that this was a result of factors already present in everyday life, making one group of people
more vulnerable. Hurricane Katrina played out as two events: a hurricane followed by a flood.
What follows will show that the floods were exacerbated by human action, but first the problems
associated with coastal storms and floods will be briefly described, as considered by Blaikie et
al. (2004).
Hurricanes bring wind, rain, flooding and storm surges: there will likely be damage to housing,
roads, telecommunications and power facilities. Problems associated with flooding include
water and sewage damage, contamination through sewage, chemical and fuel leaks, and
garbage and debris. In developed countries, floods tend to cause few deaths but can cost up to
billions of dollars in damages. Floods are generally repetitive and are therefore known risks; so
protection should be possible, at least to a certain degree. Dams and levees provide some
protection, but can lead to a false sense of security (Blaikie et al., 2004:203-206).
Despite the risky nature of coastal areas, colonial expansion and global economics have led to
greater coastal populations all over the world. Flood-prone areas provide fertile land, and
therefore have been attractive to farming communities for years. Water was also, at one time,
the primary means of transportation for goods and people. Trading posts grew along
waterways; and communities, industry and commerce built up around these areas. People
migrated in to work, and so communities of families and friends developed and settled (Blaikie
et al., 2004:203-206). Nowadays many people in developed countries dream of retiring in the
sun, which in the USA often means hurricane-prone areas such as Florida and the Gulf coast
(Blaikie et al., 2004:246-249).
Hurricane Katrina was a category 4 hurricane that hit the Gulf coast of the USA at 5am on
Monday 29th August 2005. A 10-20 foot storm surge hit the coast and, in New Orleans, it
entered Lake Pontchartrain (Congleton, 2006). It affected an estimated 90,000 square miles
along the coast, displaced at least 400,000 people (Masozera et al., 2007:303), and there were
1,281 deaths (Wisner & Walker, 2005). Evacuation orders were issued in Alabama, Mississippi
and Louisiana. More than 1 million people evacuated New Orleans on 27th and 28th August, but
more than 70,000 people stayed (Landry et al., 2007:326-327). The hurricane brought wind,
rain and storm surge damage; but also damaged the levees, which slowly flooded 80% of the
city with up to 20 feet of water. Damage was estimated to cost at least $200 billion (Congleton,
2006).
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4. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
This paper will examine the disaster by looking first to the root causes, then dynamic pressures,
and finally the unsafe conditions.
Root Causes
For New Orleans, factors such as its geographical situation and elevation, political and
economic ideology, and historical racism are root causes of the disaster.
1. Geographical Situation, Environmental Change and Experience of
Hurricanes
New Orleans is situated in southern Louisiana, sandwiched between the Mississippi River to the
south and Lake Pontchartrain to the north (shown in Figure 2). Its location at the intersection of
3 navigable water bodies meant it became an important trading post. The city was built on the
lowest elevation of the state, but the oldest parts of the city are on the highest ground in the
bayou (Cutter, 2006). As commerce increased, so did the size of New Orleans: by 1860 the
population was almost 170,000 (Congleton, 2006:8). Growth of the city was inevitable due to its
importance, and as the city expanded, lower elevations were settled. In 2002, the population
was almost 500,000.
Figure 2: Map of New Orleans
Source: http://www.discoverneworlean s.com/maps/l ouisi ana.htm l
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5. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
In 2005 much of the city was below sea level โas much as 3 metres below โ and protected by
levees. Figure 3 shows a cross section of the city; and Figure 4 shows areas furthest below sea
level in pink and lilac, and levees as bright pink lines. A side effect of the levees is a reduced
elevation of the city (Congleton, 2006): it is sinking in a bowl-shape, so drainage is an issue in
times of high rainfall (Cutter, 2006).
Figure 3: New Orleans Ground Elevation
Source: http://en.wikipe di a.org/wiki/File:New_ Orleans_Elevations.jpg
Figure 4: New Orleans Elevation Map
Source: http://en.wikipe di a.org/wiki/File: Msyelevst.jpg
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6. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
New Orleans has been struck by several hurricanes in the last century: Betsy in 1965, Camille
in 1969, and Katrina in 2005 (Masozera et al., 2007:301). Many of the older residents
remember previous, intense hurricanes.
2. Political and Economic Ideology
The political ideology in the USA is one of neoliberalism and meritocracy, where everyone is
seen to have the same chance of success; so poverty must be the result of a lack of hard work
and ambition, as opposed to unequal opportunities or access to resources. This leads privileged
people โ usually white โ to ignore their advantages. These privileges are a result of history,
oppression, and government assistance; and structural inequality continues today through
policy choices (Sweeney, 2006).
The individualistic political ideology, together with a free-market economic ideology, leads to the
promotion of private interests and unequal distribution of power and resources. In New Orleans,
lax environmental laws and land use regulations are adopted to attract industries such as petro-
chemical, tourism and retirement development; as the fishing industry declines due to
overfishing and pollution (Wisner, 2005).
3. Racism
The historical discrimination of blacks through slavery and overt racism has produced
disparities in todayโs society (Henkel et al., 2006). Southern USA is characterised by deep and
complex racial and class relations. Policies to improve rights and conditions for former slaves
were particularly resisted in the southern states, and presidents made allowances for racial
inequality to win political support (Strolovitch et al., 2006). Relatively few people have migrated
into New Orleans in recent decades, so these relations have hardened over time and are quite
unique (Elliott & Pais, 2006:297).
Contemporary racism has been institutionalised, so that policies, either intentionally or
unintentionally, โunfairly restrict the opportunities of particular groups of peopleโ .(Henkel et al.,
2006:101). It is believed that liberal, well-educated whites are โaversive racistsโ: they support
racial equality but also harbour โ possibly unconsciously โ negative feelings about blacks. It
often leads to more positive attitudes towards whites rather than harm to blacks, but it was
stated in the Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders in 1968 that this
has led in part to their disadvantaged status (Henkel et al., 2006:102-104).
Dynamic Pressures
New Orleans is in a precarious situation simply because of its geographical location, settled due
to its trading opportunities. Coupled with the southern history of slavery and racism, and
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7. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
individualistic economic and political ideologies, everyday life becomes one of inequality,
division and differentiated vulnerability.
1. Income, Wealth and Class Relations
Considering the nation as a whole, the southern states of Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi
are historically subordinate (Elliott & Pais, 2006:296). Many of the 37 million people in poverty in
the USA are in the south (Wisner, 2005). Inequality increases as governments reduce taxes for
the richest 1% and also reduce funding for social programmes in education, health, and
emergency management; while increasing military and security spending. Republican
governments have restructured the state so that the needs of poor people are not considered or
cared about. In accordance with the political ideology, the system is concerned only with
securing the private interests of the wealthiest (Goldberg, 2006).
New Orleans is a city with high poverty, low-paid jobs (Masozera et al., 2007), violence and
gang warfare (Alexander, 2006). Prior to Katrina, the poverty rate was twice the national
average. The median per capita income was $19,711, compared to the national average of
$24,020; and 38% of under-18s lived below the poverty level, compared to the state average of
30%. Class and race are closely tied. Those in poverty tend to be black: 84% of those in
poverty were African-American. Ethnic minorities made up 72% of the population prior to
Katrina, compared to the state average of 36.1% (Masozera et al., 2007:301-302).
2. Race Relations
Social scientists have been trying to draw attention to racialised poverty in the USA for a long
time. It is a result of political decisions since slavery, and has not been a presidential campaign
issue for almost 40 years (Strolovitch et al., 2006). The legacy of slavery and continued
exclusion and segregation has created racial disparities in wealth, and drives those with the
least resources into risky areas (Henkel et al., 2006; Molotch, 2006). Vast racial inequalities in
southern USA play out in terms of education, residential segregation, job segregation, lower
wages, and unequal distributions of wealth (Sweeney, 2006:164).
Federal policies have trapped low income black families in poverty, as less funds are available
for education, small businesses, and decent low-cost housing (Wisner, 2005). Discriminatory
policies and practices have led to a distrust of whites, government, other authorities and
policies; and also to blacks occupying more environmentally-vulnerable areas. In 1994, median
family income for blacks was $20,508, compared to $33,600 for whites, and income was 62%
that of whites. Net worth of blacks was only $6,723, 12% of whitesโ $52,944. They have more
difficulty finding jobs and tend to be over-represented in jobs with shift work, long hours and
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8. Francesca Hughes Disaster Management & Sustainable Development
poor job security. Blacks are denied loans more often that whites, which has contributed to
residential segregation (Henkel et al., 2006).
New Orleans also has a history of racial tension, which increased in the months before Katrina:
three white bouncers suffocated a black man during New Year celebrations in January 2005,
followed a month later by a black teenager being shot by Jefferson County police with over 100
bullets (Henkel et al., 2006:112). This is further exposed in comments in the aftermath of
Katrina, about whites โfindingโ food while blacks were โlootingโ (Sweeney, 2006:161). A doctor
stranded in a hotel spoke to one newspaper and reported raiding a pharmacy under police
escort, while โlooters had to be held back at gun pointโ (Charatan, 2005:531), apparently seeing
a difference between himself and the โlootersโ.
3. Scope of Social Protection
The neoliberal, meritocratic political ideology outlined previously has led to a โsmall stateโ in the
USA, without everyday social protection such as public transport, public health or affordable
housing policies (Wisner & Walker, 2005).
Emergency protection can be broken down into prevention and mitigation, warning, and
response. Prevention measures designed to protect the Gulf Coast were considered too
expensive to implement (Atkins, 2005). New levees were estimated to cost $2.5 billion and
would take many years to complete (Congleton, 2006:12). Wetland improvement and offshore
artificial barrier island programmes were not funded (Wisner & Walker, 2005). Two modelling
scenarios had been considered: a hurricane and storm surge, or a levee failure due to a
hurricane (Cutter, 2006). However these focused on probabilistic scenarios rather than worst-
case scenarios (Clarke, 2006), and calls for plans for the poorest residents fell on deaf ears
(Wisner, 2005).
Elections are always a consideration in the USA: current officials shy away from costly, long-
term proposals that would benefit future government and leave few resources for the short-term
(Congleton, 2006:15). Despite the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration warning
that the 2005 hurricane season could be one of the most active on record (Clarke, 2006), few
steps were taken at the local, state or federal level (Congleton, 2006:12). Evacuation plans
should have been a priority for all levels after the near-miss of Hurricane Ivan in 2004 (Murray,
2005), but the potential threat to the population of the Gulf Coast was not a priority. The federal
government made huge cuts in hurricane and flood control funding, preventing necessary work
from being completed (Duenas, 2005).
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The official evacuation plan was for citizens to pack up and leave (Congleton, 2006:15).
Although residents knew evacuation plans and help from the city would not be enough, they
were not given alternatives (Alexander, 2006). During the summer of 2005, local officials were
putting together DVDs, essentially telling residents that they would be on their own in the event
of a major hurricane because the city did not have the resources to evacuate residents (Nolan,
2005).
At the national level, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was concerned with
disaster prevention under James Lee Witt (Alexander, 2006), but in 2003 FEMA was absorbed
into the newly-created Department of Homeland Security (DHS). It was weakened by this: focus
shifted to counter-terrorism after 9/11, and natural hazards became second-order concerns
(Holdeman, 2005). Some senior staff left (Wisner & Walker, 2005), and 75% of the
โpreparedness grantsโ were redirected towards counter-terrorism (Schneider, 2005:516). Five of
the top 8 officials had little experience in managing disasters (Lukes, 2006).
The vulnerability of the citizens was increased prior to Katrina by development decisions in New
Orleans, and the actions and inactions of the US Army Corps of Engineers (Murray, 2005).
FEMA used to encourage states and cities to prepare for disasters: its changing role was a
crucial factor in the local, state and federal response to Katrina (Alexander, 2006).
4. Human-made Environmental Changes
Wisner & Walker (2005) stated that the effects of Katrina were accentuated by human-made
changes to the local environment. This began when human interference affected โdelta
switchingโ about 100 years ago. The Mississippi River has been delta switching for over 7000
years, to find a shorter route to the sea. It abandons its main channel roughly every 1,000 years
(Heerden, 2007). This resulted in a net gain of land of approximately 3 km2 per year, prior to
human intervention. Enhanced river navigation became a national interest in the 19th century,
and by 1851, levees were extending for up to 20 miles (Heerden, 2007:25). Floods often
breached early levees. Flood control became a federal issue in 1879 for the Army Corps of
Engineers, under the authority of the Mississippi River Commission (Congleton, 2006:9). Over
the years construction has practically eliminated overland flooding, and terminated natural
wetland accretion.
Coastal wetlands are being destroyed by the activities of petro-chemical industries, tourism-
driven developments and the building of retirement homes. This is driven by the political and
economic environment, promoting private interest with little concern for social and
environmental consequences (Wisner, 2005). One mile of coastal wetland can reduce a storm
surge by 1 foot: 1,000 square miles have been lost along the Louisiana coast in the past 50
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years (Wisner & Walker, 2005). Oil and gas exploration in the 20th century led to the dredging of
โthousands of miles of access canals, pipeline canals, and navigation channelsโ (Heerden,
2007:25), disrupting the natural wetland hydrology, and increasing the risk of flooding in the city
(Congleton, 2006:11).
Unsafe Conditions
These dynamic pressures led to unsafe conditions that some of the population lived in prior to
Katrina, making them more vulnerable to the effects of the natural hazard. Blaikie et al. (1994)
considered unsafe conditions in terms of limited self-protection and social protection.
1. Self-protection
Available choices differ depending on income and residence. Many who โchoseโ to stay in New
Orleans had no transport, did not think their property would be protected, and did not have
insurance (Atkins, 2005). According to the census in 2000, 54% of poor households, and 65%
of poor elderly households, did not have their own transportation, which would make it more
difficult to evacuate and therefore increase their vulnerability. 35% of black households and
59% of poor black households, and 15% of white non-Hispanic households did not have private
transportation (Sherman & Shapiro, 2005:2). Lower socioeconomic status and poor access to
better-paid work meant blacks especially could not buy a vehicle, which would have helped
them evacuate, and they also lacked the means to pay for a hotel room (Henkel et al.,
2006:108). Other people who might require help to evacuate include elderly and special needs
populations, homeless people, transients and tourists (Cutter, 2006).
As well as access to private transport, class and racial division also affected where people lived,
including population density and quality of land and housing. In New Orleans in 2005, 70% of
the population lived on 36% of the land, at or below sea level, and much of this was flooded
(Heerden, 2007:24). Public housing largely occupied by blacks was on lower, more flood-prone
land. Middle income blacks living in New Orleans East bought affordable homes built on slabs,
up to 4 foot below sea level. Lower Ninth Ward was home to multi-generational black families,
close to an industrial canal, and had been devastated by Hurricane Betsy (Henkel et al.,
2006:108). In areas that experienced the most damage, a large proportion of the population
were poor (Masozera et al., 2007:303).
Blacks were less inclined to evacuate before the storm, most believing the storm would not be
as devastating as it was, due to previous experience (Elliott & Pais, 2006:113). Older people
had already survived several other hurricanes: why should this one be any different? Deep-
rooted feelings of distrust of government, which existed due to past policies, probably
contributed to decisions not to evacuate (Henkel et al., 2006:113).
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Limited self-protection, through access to transport, existing assets, and quality of housing, was
influential for many of those who remained. Perceived risk was another deciding factor.
2. Social protection
Social protection in New Orleans is generally focused around the levees and Hurricane
Protection System (HPS), weather warnings, evacuation orders, and the local, state and federal
response.
Katrina was expected in the sense that a major hurricane is always a risk in New Orleans due to
its location. The weather service did a good job of tracking Katrina (Scanlon, 2006). However,
mandatory evacuation orders for the most vulnerable areas, mostly inhabited by blacks, were
delayed until 19 hours before landfall, despite 56 hours warning. Evacuation became impossible
for many people once the severity of the hurricane became clear (Henkel et al., 2006).
Prediction and warning became disengaged: scientific information was not translated into public
action (Alexander, 2006).
The federal government declared an emergency, but residents were on their own in terms of
evacuation (Duenas, 2005). The evacuation announcement led to many people leaving the city,
but others considered the message less urgent due to the shelters within the city (Scanlon,
2006). The census in 2000 registered many people who would require help, including 102,000
residents with a disability, and people over 65 who accounted for 12% of the population (Wisner
& Walker, 2005), but there were no plans to use buses, trains or planes to evacuate those
without private transport (Wisner, 2005).
More than half of the 3,560 miles of levee system was breached or destroyed. The
effectiveness of the HPS is diminished because it is designed on antiquated assumptions and
policies. The Army Corps of Engineers was aware of vulnerabilities, but seemed uninterested in
making improvements. Engineering errors and political decisions left New Orleans with a sub-
standard levee system (Heerden, 2007).
The breakdown of administrative elements in emergency management played a role in the
major problems of Katrina, at the local, state and federal levels (Schneider, 2005). The
Governor was reluctant to give up her authority, but she did ask for federal help before the
levees were breached (Lukes, 2006). FEMA waited until they were called on by local and state
governments with specific requests rather than initiating relief efforts (Clarke, 2006). Federal
agencies blamed local and state government for vague requests (Molotch, 2006). FEMA trained
firefighters in community relations for days before sending them into New Orleans, stopped
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trucks carrying bottled water, and refused other aid (Lukes, 2006). The inability of public
agencies to assist disaster victims led to a breakdown of social order (Schneider, 2005:515).
Those who were stranded broke into stores for supplies in their desperation. The Mayor and
Governor prioritised law and order, to stop widespread looting and violence (Duenas, 2005).
The Superdome and Convention Centre were used to house people who were not able to
evacuate, but there was no electricity, toilets or water. Hygiene standards were below the
minimum Sphere standards (Wisner, 2005). People were turned away from the Superdome by
armed guards when capacity was reached (Congleton, 2006:18). The National Guard was sent
in on 31st August, but food and water was not sent until 2nd September (Charatan, 2005). Media
reports about violence and crime were exaggerated, but served to aggravate relations when the
troops arrived (Wisner & Walker, 2005).
Those who were unable to self-protect were not adequately assisted by authorities (Schuemer-
Cross & Taylor, 2009:47): they were โleft to sink or swimโ (Younge, 2005). However there was
some good practice: the coastguard rescued twice as many people in the aftermath than it had
over the previous 50 years (Wachtendorf & Kendra, 2006).
Summary
Poor self-protection resulted from limited access to resources and assets, which is a result of
political and economic systems that promote inequality and private gain, as well as the history
of racism and discrimination. Poor social protection was a result of the inability and
incompetence of public institutions, both before the disaster (the inadequacy of the levees and
proper planning) and in the aftermath (the slow, uncoordinated response). These were results
of the political and economic systems, which did not prioritise social protection. Wetland
destruction also worsened the effects of the hurricane, and again, this occurred as private
interests were promoted over social interests in the free market, neoliberal environment.
Flooding affected neighbourhoods regardless of income or race, but lower socio-economic
groups were made vulnerable by a lack of revenue, resources and political will; together with
the free-market ideology, destruction of wetlands, and reliance on the levees (Alexander, 2006).
Release
Socio-economic status is also important in recovery, due to insurance, savings, more secure
employment and income (Mulcahy, 2006; Masozera et al., 2007). In order to prevent another
similar disaster, the area requires proper disaster planning and an effective evacuation plan, as
well as the re-establishment of barrier islands and wetlands, and the construction of good
quality housing for all. Class and racial divisions need to be managed, and social protection
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needs to become a priority. The future does not look good. Henkel (2006) stated that
predominantly white communities were able to โlook and leaveโ much sooner than black
communities, and bulldozing was commissioned before informing residents. Institutional actions
in the recovery phase have further fuelled racial divisions and distrust. Low income and poor
credit have led to 82% of 276,000 loan applications to the Small Business Administration (SBA)
being rejected. Alternative grants from FEMA are less than a quarter of that available from SBA
(Goldberg, 2006:91). Meanwhile, the wealthy, powerful, white elite are determined to rebuild the
city with fewer poor people and therefore fewer blacks. The root causes have not changed, so
the continued unequal distribution of power and resources will lead to the promotion of the
interests of oil and shipping firms and tourism developers (Marcuse, 2006).
Conclusion
In considering whether the factors leading to vulnerabilities were more important than the
natural hazard itself, it can be concluded that this was very much the case in New Orleans.
Media attention initially focused on the strength of the storm, individual action and poor disaster
management. As the social reality of New Orleans became better known, more focus was
placed on management. Self-protection was limited and social protection failed: there was little
preparedness, no evacuation plan for the poorest, and the failure of levees that were never built
to standard anyway. But these issues were a result of bigger factors, which academic writers
and better journalism drew attention to: the class and race divisions present in American society
and especially New Orleans; human-made environmental change as a result of private
interests; and the focus and scope of government and disaster management approaches. It has
been argued that these were the results of the economic and political ideologies of the USA,
and history of slavery.
Katrina exposed disparities that were the result of underlying power structures and inequalities
with historical and institutional roots (Strolovitch et al., 2006). Disasters reflect neglect by elites
and poor governance, which leads to fragile livelihoods (Wisner & Gaillard, 2009). If
vulnerability is to be reduced, disaster management policy must focus on improving social
conditions: improving these fragile livelihoods (Cutter, 2006; Masozera et al., 2007). It is
possible that in a society more concerned with social and environmental matters, that the
outcome would have been quite different. In Cubaโs disaster management, a high priority is
assigned to human life and collective action. There is a four-phase plan: the public is informed
that a hurricane is likely to strike two days ahead, and a day later they are told to prepare for
evacuation. The third phase is telling the public that a hurricane has struck; and immediately all
vehicles are prepared to evacuate people. All in a country with scarce fuel and poor road
conditions (Sims & Vogelmann, 2002).
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