PCI, PCI-X, and PCIe are different expansion slot technologies used in PCs. PCI was the first industry-wide expansion slot solution and used parallel communication. PCI-X provided higher speeds by using phase-locked clock generators. PCIe uses serial communication via point-to-point connections between devices, providing much higher maximum bandwidth than PCI. It transformed the parallel PCI bus into a serial bus architecture.
PCI Express is a high-speed serial computer expansion bus standard that was created to replace older standards like PCI, PCI-X, and AGP. It provides dedicated bandwidth to devices through the use of lanes and is commonly used as the interface for graphics cards, hard drives, and other peripherals. PCIe has gone through several generations that have increased its maximum bandwidth. It uses a layered protocol architecture and is designed for compatibility while providing scalable bandwidth and other advantages over older standards.
This document provides an overview of the PCI Express physical layer technology. It discusses the lane counts and data rates supported by different PCIe versions. It describes the three logical layers of PCIe and divides the physical layer into logical and electrical sub-blocks. It explains several key physical layer technologies including 8b/10b encoding, data scrambling, de-emphasis, and link training. Link training negotiates link parameters and ensures synchronization between devices on the link.
PCIe is a standard expansion card interface introduced in 2004 to replace PCI and PCI-X. It uses serial instead of parallel communication and is scalable, allowing for higher maximum system bandwidth. The presentation discusses the history of expansion card standards leading to PCIe, including ISA, EISA, VESA, PCI, and PCI-X. It also covers key aspects of PCIe such as the root complex, endpoints, switches, lanes, bus:device.function notation, enumeration, and address spaces such as configuration space.
The document provides an overview of the responsibilities and functions of the Genie-PCIe data link layer. The data link layer is responsible for reliable transmission of transaction layer packets (TLPs) between the physical and transaction layers. It handles flow control initialization, sequencing, buffering, error detection and recovery for transmitted TLPs using ACK/NAK protocols and data link layer packets (DLLPs). The data link control state machine manages the link status and ensures proper initialization and maintenance of the link.
PCIe and PCIe driver in WEC7 (Windows Embedded compact 7)gnkeshava
This document provides an overview of PCI and PCI Express buses. It defines PCI as a parallel bus standard introduced in 1993 to connect peripherals to the computer. PCI Express is described as a newer serial standard introduced in 2004 that offers improvements over PCI like higher throughput and hot plugging support. The document outlines key differences between the two standards and provides details on PCI Express architecture including root complexes, endpoints, switches, and bridges. It also covers topics like PCI Express lanes, connectors, configuration space, and memory mapping. In the end it provides a brief introduction to PCI bus drivers in the Windows environment.
Creating Your Own PCI Express System Using FPGAs: Embedded World 2010Altera Corporation
This document discusses creating PCI Express systems using FPGA devices. It provides an overview of PCI Express, describing its key functional elements like the root complex and endpoints. It also outlines PCI Express support in Altera FPGAs, including both hard IP blocks and soft IP cores that enable PCI Express connectivity. The hard IP blocks perform the various PCI Express layers and reduce resource usage compared to soft cores.
The document describes an AXI_PCIEX1 module that acts as a PCI Express to AXI bridge, allowing a system with an embedded AXI bus to connect to an external PCI Express bus. The module is compliant with DO-254 guidance for critical applications and has a low gate count and latency. It supports PCIe 1.0 at 2.5 Gbps on one lane and interfaces with AXI4 at 32 bits. The module is optimized for reliability and error reporting. DMAP provides Verilog RTL, verification testbenches, and all required certification documentation.
This document provides an overview of the verification strategy for PCI-Express. It discusses the PCI-Express protocol, including the physical, data link, transaction, and software layers. It outlines the verification paradigm, including functional verification using constrained random testing, assertions, asynchronous/power domain simulations, and performance verification. It also discusses compliance verification through electrical, data link, transaction, and system architecture checklists. Finally, it discusses design for verification through a modular and scalable architecture to promote reusability and reduce verification effort and complexity.
PCI Express is a high-speed serial computer expansion bus standard that was created to replace older standards like PCI, PCI-X, and AGP. It provides dedicated bandwidth to devices through the use of lanes and is commonly used as the interface for graphics cards, hard drives, and other peripherals. PCIe has gone through several generations that have increased its maximum bandwidth. It uses a layered protocol architecture and is designed for compatibility while providing scalable bandwidth and other advantages over older standards.
This document provides an overview of the PCI Express physical layer technology. It discusses the lane counts and data rates supported by different PCIe versions. It describes the three logical layers of PCIe and divides the physical layer into logical and electrical sub-blocks. It explains several key physical layer technologies including 8b/10b encoding, data scrambling, de-emphasis, and link training. Link training negotiates link parameters and ensures synchronization between devices on the link.
PCIe is a standard expansion card interface introduced in 2004 to replace PCI and PCI-X. It uses serial instead of parallel communication and is scalable, allowing for higher maximum system bandwidth. The presentation discusses the history of expansion card standards leading to PCIe, including ISA, EISA, VESA, PCI, and PCI-X. It also covers key aspects of PCIe such as the root complex, endpoints, switches, lanes, bus:device.function notation, enumeration, and address spaces such as configuration space.
The document provides an overview of the responsibilities and functions of the Genie-PCIe data link layer. The data link layer is responsible for reliable transmission of transaction layer packets (TLPs) between the physical and transaction layers. It handles flow control initialization, sequencing, buffering, error detection and recovery for transmitted TLPs using ACK/NAK protocols and data link layer packets (DLLPs). The data link control state machine manages the link status and ensures proper initialization and maintenance of the link.
PCIe and PCIe driver in WEC7 (Windows Embedded compact 7)gnkeshava
This document provides an overview of PCI and PCI Express buses. It defines PCI as a parallel bus standard introduced in 1993 to connect peripherals to the computer. PCI Express is described as a newer serial standard introduced in 2004 that offers improvements over PCI like higher throughput and hot plugging support. The document outlines key differences between the two standards and provides details on PCI Express architecture including root complexes, endpoints, switches, and bridges. It also covers topics like PCI Express lanes, connectors, configuration space, and memory mapping. In the end it provides a brief introduction to PCI bus drivers in the Windows environment.
Creating Your Own PCI Express System Using FPGAs: Embedded World 2010Altera Corporation
This document discusses creating PCI Express systems using FPGA devices. It provides an overview of PCI Express, describing its key functional elements like the root complex and endpoints. It also outlines PCI Express support in Altera FPGAs, including both hard IP blocks and soft IP cores that enable PCI Express connectivity. The hard IP blocks perform the various PCI Express layers and reduce resource usage compared to soft cores.
The document describes an AXI_PCIEX1 module that acts as a PCI Express to AXI bridge, allowing a system with an embedded AXI bus to connect to an external PCI Express bus. The module is compliant with DO-254 guidance for critical applications and has a low gate count and latency. It supports PCIe 1.0 at 2.5 Gbps on one lane and interfaces with AXI4 at 32 bits. The module is optimized for reliability and error reporting. DMAP provides Verilog RTL, verification testbenches, and all required certification documentation.
This document provides an overview of the verification strategy for PCI-Express. It discusses the PCI-Express protocol, including the physical, data link, transaction, and software layers. It outlines the verification paradigm, including functional verification using constrained random testing, assertions, asynchronous/power domain simulations, and performance verification. It also discusses compliance verification through electrical, data link, transaction, and system architecture checklists. Finally, it discusses design for verification through a modular and scalable architecture to promote reusability and reduce verification effort and complexity.
The document provides an overview of the PCI Express system architecture. It discusses the architectural perspective of PCI Express including how it maintains backwards compatibility with PCI/PCI-X while improving performance through serial point-to-point connectivity and packet-based transactions. It also covers the PCI Express transaction model and types, including memory, I/O, configuration and message transactions, as well as posted and non-posted transaction types.
The document discusses the I2C communication bus protocol. It describes the I2C bus concept of using two bi-directional lines (SDA and SCL) to allow devices with unique addresses to communicate as masters or slaves. The document outlines the I2C communication protocol including START/STOP conditions, byte format, acknowledgment, synchronization, arbitration, and 7-bit and 10-bit addressing schemes. Key aspects of the I2C bus such as typical transfer rates, hardware connections, and terminology are also summarized.
The document introduces RISC-V, an open instruction set architecture originated at UC Berkeley, outlines its design goals of being freely available and suitable for direct hardware implementation, and describes aspects of its ISA design including its load-store architecture, lack of condition codes, and support for 32, 64, and 128-bit addressing as well as its calling convention for passing arguments in registers and on the stack.
The AXI protocol specification describes an advanced bus architecture with burst-based transactions using separate address/control and data phases over independent channels. It supports features like out-of-order transaction completion, exclusive access for atomic operations, cache coherency, and a low power interface. The AXI protocol is commonly used in System-on-Chip designs for high performance embedded processors and peripherals.
This document provides a summary of a book about PCI Express technology. It includes an introduction to the book, a table of contents listing the topics covered, biographies of the authors, and endorsements of the book. The summary is as follows:
The document introduces a book that provides a comprehensive guide to PCI Express generations 1.x, 2.x, and 3.0. It includes biographies of the authors and an endorsement quoting that the book is essential for understanding PCI Express. The table of contents indicates it will cover topics such as the origins and architecture of PCI Express, various technical specifications and features, and considerations for high-speed signaling.
I2C is a serial protocol for two-wire interface to connect low-speed devices like microcontrollers, EEPROMs, A/D and D/A converters, I/O interfaces and other similar peripherals in embedded systems. It was invented by Philips and now it is used by almost all major IC manufacturers. Each I2C slave device needs an address – they must still be obtained from NXP (formerly Philips semiconductors).
The document provides an overview of Ethernet networking fundamentals, including:
- Ethernet is a family of Layer 2 protocols used for local area networks (LANs).
- Ethernet standards such as IEEE 802.3 define the media access control (MAC) and physical layers.
- The IEEE 802 standards body has defined various Ethernet specifications for speeds including 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1 Gbps.
This document provides an overview of Linux PCI Express drivers, including PCIe topology, configuration space, driver initialization, and common port service drivers. It describes the PCIe standard for replacing older PCI standards and how PCIe preserves backward compatibility at the software level. It also outlines the device enumeration process, driver access methods, and reference resources for PCIe specifications and Linux PCIe documentation.
The document discusses various Ethernet protocols and standards including:
- IEEE 802.3u and 802.3z which define Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet transmission rates.
- IEEE 802.1D, 802.1s, and 802.1w which relate to Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) and its variants for avoiding loops.
- IEEE 802.1Q for VLAN tagging to logically separate traffic on a physical LAN infrastructure.
- IEEE 802.3ad for Link Aggregation to combine multiple network links into a single logical trunk to increase bandwidth and redundancy.
PCI Express is a serial computer expansion bus standard designed to replace older standards like PCI and AGP. It uses point-to-point connections between two devices using serial communication over one or more lanes. PCIe protocol has three layers - the transaction layer which interacts with software, the data link layer which provides reliable packet exchange, and the physical layer which isolates the other layers from signaling technology.
This document discusses the design of an open core protocol (OCP) for efficient communication between intellectual property (IP) cores on a system-on-chip (SOC). It begins with an introduction to the need for standardized on-chip communication protocols like OCP as the number and complexity of integrated IP cores increases. It then discusses key aspects of OCP, including defining a bus-independent interface and facilitating reuse of IP cores. The document reviews related work on on-chip communication protocols and bus architectures. It proposes a high-performance bus design using OCP that features crossbar/partial-crossbar interconnect to enable different transaction types at high efficiency.
The document discusses CPU verification. It describes verifying at both the architecture and microarchitecture levels. Architecture verification ensures instruction set compliance through random instruction sequences. Microarchitecture verification focuses on implementation details like pipelines and caches using constrained random verification. Milestones track progress through metrics like test plan completion, regression pass rates, functional coverage, and bug trends.
44CON 2014 - Stupid PCIe Tricks, Joe Fitzpatrick44CON
Joe FitzPatrick gave a presentation on exploiting PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) buses for hardware attacks. He discussed using DMA (direct memory access) over PCIe to read and write system memory, modify firmware, and potentially bypass mitigations like IOMMU (input-output memory management unit). FitzPatrick demonstrated proof-of-concept attacks on Macs and Windows PCs using custom PCIe devices and software. However, he noted that fully bypassing protections like VT-d on Macbooks had not yet been achieved and more work is needed to build attacks without imitating a genuine device.
System on Chip (SoC) integrates processor, memory and other components onto a single chip. Advances in VLSI technology allow millions of transistors to be placed on a single die, enabling entire systems to be implemented as SoCs. This provides benefits like lower cost, power consumption and size compared to discrete components. However, designing highly complex SoCs presents challenges related to design time, verification and complexity. Reusing pre-designed and verified intellectual property (IP) cores is a solution that helps manage this complexity.
The document discusses the key aspects of the PCIe transaction layer including:
- It defines the packet format and different transaction types for memory, I/O, configuration and messages.
- Rules are specified for TLPs with data payloads, digest rules, address-based and ID-based routing.
- Transaction descriptors contain the transaction ID, attributes and traffic class fields.
- Memory, I/O and configuration request rules and completion rules are also outlined.
Slow peripheral interfaces (i2 c spi uart)PREMAL GAJJAR
The Serial Peripheral Interface or SPI bus is a synchronous serial data link, a de facto standard, named by Motorola, that operates in full duplex mode. It is used for short distance, single master communication, for example in embedded systems, sensors, and SD cards.
The document describes the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) protocol which allows for full duplex synchronous serial communication between a master and slave device using 4 pins - MOSI, MISO, SCK, and an optional SS pin. It details the SPI registers for control, status, and data and provides examples of SPI communication with peripherals like digital pots and shift registers. Common issues like conflicts with programming interfaces and ensuring proper chip select signaling are also covered.
PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) abbreviated as PCIe or PCI-E, is designed to replace the older PCI, PCI-X, AGP standards. We present a data communication developed system for use the transfer data between the host and the peripheral devices via PCIe. The performance and the available area on the board are effective by using the PCIe. PCIe is a serial expansion bus interconnection method which is use for high speed communication. PCI Express represents the currently fastest and most expensive solution to connect the peripheral devices with general purpose CPU. It provides a highest bandwidth connection in the PC platform. In this paper, we highlight the different types of bus architecture. Here the PCIe architecture is described how data transfer between the CPU to the destination.
The document discusses different types of computer expansion slots, including their applications and differences. It describes Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots, Enhanced Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) slots, Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) slots, Video Electronics Standard Association (VESA) slots, Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots, Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) slots, and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slots. It also covers newer technologies like PCI-Express that are replacing older slot types.
The document provides an overview of the PCI Express system architecture. It discusses the architectural perspective of PCI Express including how it maintains backwards compatibility with PCI/PCI-X while improving performance through serial point-to-point connectivity and packet-based transactions. It also covers the PCI Express transaction model and types, including memory, I/O, configuration and message transactions, as well as posted and non-posted transaction types.
The document discusses the I2C communication bus protocol. It describes the I2C bus concept of using two bi-directional lines (SDA and SCL) to allow devices with unique addresses to communicate as masters or slaves. The document outlines the I2C communication protocol including START/STOP conditions, byte format, acknowledgment, synchronization, arbitration, and 7-bit and 10-bit addressing schemes. Key aspects of the I2C bus such as typical transfer rates, hardware connections, and terminology are also summarized.
The document introduces RISC-V, an open instruction set architecture originated at UC Berkeley, outlines its design goals of being freely available and suitable for direct hardware implementation, and describes aspects of its ISA design including its load-store architecture, lack of condition codes, and support for 32, 64, and 128-bit addressing as well as its calling convention for passing arguments in registers and on the stack.
The AXI protocol specification describes an advanced bus architecture with burst-based transactions using separate address/control and data phases over independent channels. It supports features like out-of-order transaction completion, exclusive access for atomic operations, cache coherency, and a low power interface. The AXI protocol is commonly used in System-on-Chip designs for high performance embedded processors and peripherals.
This document provides a summary of a book about PCI Express technology. It includes an introduction to the book, a table of contents listing the topics covered, biographies of the authors, and endorsements of the book. The summary is as follows:
The document introduces a book that provides a comprehensive guide to PCI Express generations 1.x, 2.x, and 3.0. It includes biographies of the authors and an endorsement quoting that the book is essential for understanding PCI Express. The table of contents indicates it will cover topics such as the origins and architecture of PCI Express, various technical specifications and features, and considerations for high-speed signaling.
I2C is a serial protocol for two-wire interface to connect low-speed devices like microcontrollers, EEPROMs, A/D and D/A converters, I/O interfaces and other similar peripherals in embedded systems. It was invented by Philips and now it is used by almost all major IC manufacturers. Each I2C slave device needs an address – they must still be obtained from NXP (formerly Philips semiconductors).
The document provides an overview of Ethernet networking fundamentals, including:
- Ethernet is a family of Layer 2 protocols used for local area networks (LANs).
- Ethernet standards such as IEEE 802.3 define the media access control (MAC) and physical layers.
- The IEEE 802 standards body has defined various Ethernet specifications for speeds including 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1 Gbps.
This document provides an overview of Linux PCI Express drivers, including PCIe topology, configuration space, driver initialization, and common port service drivers. It describes the PCIe standard for replacing older PCI standards and how PCIe preserves backward compatibility at the software level. It also outlines the device enumeration process, driver access methods, and reference resources for PCIe specifications and Linux PCIe documentation.
The document discusses various Ethernet protocols and standards including:
- IEEE 802.3u and 802.3z which define Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet transmission rates.
- IEEE 802.1D, 802.1s, and 802.1w which relate to Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) and its variants for avoiding loops.
- IEEE 802.1Q for VLAN tagging to logically separate traffic on a physical LAN infrastructure.
- IEEE 802.3ad for Link Aggregation to combine multiple network links into a single logical trunk to increase bandwidth and redundancy.
PCI Express is a serial computer expansion bus standard designed to replace older standards like PCI and AGP. It uses point-to-point connections between two devices using serial communication over one or more lanes. PCIe protocol has three layers - the transaction layer which interacts with software, the data link layer which provides reliable packet exchange, and the physical layer which isolates the other layers from signaling technology.
This document discusses the design of an open core protocol (OCP) for efficient communication between intellectual property (IP) cores on a system-on-chip (SOC). It begins with an introduction to the need for standardized on-chip communication protocols like OCP as the number and complexity of integrated IP cores increases. It then discusses key aspects of OCP, including defining a bus-independent interface and facilitating reuse of IP cores. The document reviews related work on on-chip communication protocols and bus architectures. It proposes a high-performance bus design using OCP that features crossbar/partial-crossbar interconnect to enable different transaction types at high efficiency.
The document discusses CPU verification. It describes verifying at both the architecture and microarchitecture levels. Architecture verification ensures instruction set compliance through random instruction sequences. Microarchitecture verification focuses on implementation details like pipelines and caches using constrained random verification. Milestones track progress through metrics like test plan completion, regression pass rates, functional coverage, and bug trends.
44CON 2014 - Stupid PCIe Tricks, Joe Fitzpatrick44CON
Joe FitzPatrick gave a presentation on exploiting PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) buses for hardware attacks. He discussed using DMA (direct memory access) over PCIe to read and write system memory, modify firmware, and potentially bypass mitigations like IOMMU (input-output memory management unit). FitzPatrick demonstrated proof-of-concept attacks on Macs and Windows PCs using custom PCIe devices and software. However, he noted that fully bypassing protections like VT-d on Macbooks had not yet been achieved and more work is needed to build attacks without imitating a genuine device.
System on Chip (SoC) integrates processor, memory and other components onto a single chip. Advances in VLSI technology allow millions of transistors to be placed on a single die, enabling entire systems to be implemented as SoCs. This provides benefits like lower cost, power consumption and size compared to discrete components. However, designing highly complex SoCs presents challenges related to design time, verification and complexity. Reusing pre-designed and verified intellectual property (IP) cores is a solution that helps manage this complexity.
The document discusses the key aspects of the PCIe transaction layer including:
- It defines the packet format and different transaction types for memory, I/O, configuration and messages.
- Rules are specified for TLPs with data payloads, digest rules, address-based and ID-based routing.
- Transaction descriptors contain the transaction ID, attributes and traffic class fields.
- Memory, I/O and configuration request rules and completion rules are also outlined.
Slow peripheral interfaces (i2 c spi uart)PREMAL GAJJAR
The Serial Peripheral Interface or SPI bus is a synchronous serial data link, a de facto standard, named by Motorola, that operates in full duplex mode. It is used for short distance, single master communication, for example in embedded systems, sensors, and SD cards.
The document describes the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) protocol which allows for full duplex synchronous serial communication between a master and slave device using 4 pins - MOSI, MISO, SCK, and an optional SS pin. It details the SPI registers for control, status, and data and provides examples of SPI communication with peripherals like digital pots and shift registers. Common issues like conflicts with programming interfaces and ensuring proper chip select signaling are also covered.
PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) abbreviated as PCIe or PCI-E, is designed to replace the older PCI, PCI-X, AGP standards. We present a data communication developed system for use the transfer data between the host and the peripheral devices via PCIe. The performance and the available area on the board are effective by using the PCIe. PCIe is a serial expansion bus interconnection method which is use for high speed communication. PCI Express represents the currently fastest and most expensive solution to connect the peripheral devices with general purpose CPU. It provides a highest bandwidth connection in the PC platform. In this paper, we highlight the different types of bus architecture. Here the PCIe architecture is described how data transfer between the CPU to the destination.
The document discusses different types of computer expansion slots, including their applications and differences. It describes Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots, Enhanced Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) slots, Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) slots, Video Electronics Standard Association (VESA) slots, Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots, Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) slots, and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slots. It also covers newer technologies like PCI-Express that are replacing older slot types.
The document provides information about motherboard components and their functions, as well as how to troubleshoot motherboard failures. It discusses the main components of a motherboard including the back panel connectors, PCI slots, northbridge, southbridge, CPU socket, power connectors, and RAM slots. It then describes common motherboard failure symptoms and provides a multi-step process for troubleshooting, which involves checking for physical damage, voltages, and signals before attempting to replace failed components.
Expansion buses connect the CPU to other components on the system board and allow communication between these components. There have been several standard expansion bus architectures over time including ISA, EISA, VESA Local Bus, and PCI buses. PCI bus is the most widely used today as it offers high throughput, scalability, and a standard specification. Expansion buses define system resources like interrupts, memory addresses, and DMA channels that components use to communicate on the bus.
The document discusses various types of computer buses and interfaces. It defines a bus as a collection of wires that transmit data between parts of a computer. The main parts of a bus are the address bus, data bus, and control bus. Internal buses like the front-side and backside buses connect the CPU to caches and memory. Expansion buses like PCI, PCIe, and USB connect external devices. PCIe uses serial connections of lanes to double the data rate of PCI. Interfaces connect different systems and devices, with common computer interfaces being parallel ports, serial ports, and USB.
The document discusses various computer interfaces and bus architectures. It describes interfaces such as USB, FireWire, SCSI, IDE, SATA, serial/parallel, analog/digital. It also covers different types of computer buses like ISA, EISA, PCI, AGP, and system buses. Peripheral devices connect to computers via these various interfaces and buses.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) allows transferring data between computer memory and devices without using the CPU. This saves processing time by allowing devices like sound cards, video cards, and hard drives to access memory directly. DMA channels are assigned to devices to enable direct memory access. Common DMA transfer types include memory-to-memory transfers and auto-initialization, which automatically restores register values after a transfer.
The document discusses different types of expansion slots and I/O buses used in computers. It describes the key characteristics of various standards like ISA, EISA, MCA, VESA local bus, PCI, AGP, and PCI Express. These standards differ in data width, speed, architecture, and features supported. Newer standards like PCI Express provide higher speeds and scalability compared to older parallel bus architectures like PCI and ISA.
The document provides information on various bus standards used in computers, including ISA, PCI, SCSI, IDE, and USB. It describes the history and characteristics of each standard. ISA was the original bus standard from 1981 but has been replaced by faster standards like PCI. PCI supports high-speed direct memory access and is widely used today. SCSI is used for hard drives and other peripherals but requires more pins than IDE. IDE connects hard drives and is cheaper than SCSI. USB is a serial bus standard introduced in 1995 that allows many peripheral devices to be connected using cables with standardized connectors.
1. The document discusses the PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) local bus standard, which was developed in the early 1990s as a high-speed expansion bus for personal computers and workstations.
2. PCI supports transfer rates of up to 133 MB/s for a 32-bit bus and 266 MB/s for a 64-bit bus through the use of burst transfers. It connects the processor to various expansion cards through a PCI bridge.
3. The PCI bridge plays an important role in decoupling the processor memory subsystem from the PCI bus. It can independently combine multiple single read/write operations into burst transfers to better utilize the bandwidth of the PCI bus.
HyperTransport is a high-speed serial point-to-point interconnect that was developed as an alternative to traditional I/O buses to address increasing bandwidth needs. It provides high bandwidth, low latency communication between components using a packet-based protocol and source synchronous signaling. HyperTransport supports multiple topologies including daisy chaining, switches, and stars and can scale from personal computers to large multiprocessor systems. It has largely replaced front-side buses and can integrate processors, memory, and I/O subsystems more efficiently than previous bus architectures.
directCell - Cell/B.E. tightly coupled via PCI ExpressHeiko Joerg Schick
This document summarizes new features in PCI Express Gen 3, including Atomic Operations, TLP Processing Hints, TLP Prefix, Resizable BAR, and others. It describes how each feature enhances PCI Express functionality, such as enabling atomic operations to facilitate migration of SMP applications to PCIe accelerators, and TLP Prefix allowing expansion of header sizes to carry additional information.
The document is a glossary that defines common IT terms to help managers better communicate with their IT staff. It contains over 100 definitions of technical terms ranging from descriptions of networking standards and protocols to components of computer hardware and software architecture. The glossary provides concise explanations of terms to give managers a foundational understanding of information technology concepts and terminology.
The motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer that connects all the components together. It contains ports and slots for connecting peripherals and expansion cards. The CPU communicates with memory and other devices via the chipset and different bus architectures. System memory stores active programs and data for processing. BIOS and CMOS RAM store basic settings. The power supply converts AC to various DC voltages needed to power the computer components.
The document discusses point-to-point interconnect and PCI Express. It provides details on Intel's Quick Path Interconnect which uses a point-to-point architecture with multiple direct connections and a layered protocol. It also discusses the physical, data link and transaction layers of the PCI Express protocol and how packets are processed at each layer to ensure reliable transmission across the PCIe link.
The motherboard connects all the PC components together. It has sockets for the CPU, RAM, expansion slots for devices, and connectors for drives and ports. The chipset on the motherboard controls communication between these components and the CPU. Key components on the motherboard include the CPU socket, memory sockets, expansion slots like PCI and ISA, drive controllers for connecting hard drives and floppy drives, and ports. The BIOS chip stored on the motherboard controls low-level processes during startup.
Network Interface Card (NIC) is also commonly referred to as an Ethernet card and network adapter and is an expansion card that enables a computer to connect to a network (such as Internet) using an Ethernet cable with a RJ-45 connector.
This document provides an overview of various networking hardware components, including their functions and how they operate at different layers of the OSI model. It describes network adapters, repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, and gateways. It covers topics such as installing and configuring network adapters, choosing the right adapter, VLANs, and common routing protocols.
The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus was introduced in 1981 by IBM to support the 8-bit external data bus of the Intel 8088 microprocessor used in early IBM PC models. It was later extended to 16 bits to support the Intel 80286 CPU. The ISA bus allowed attachment of up to six devices and was superseded by the 32-bit PCI bus in 1993. The PCI bus displaced ISA and other buses as it provided higher performance and capacity. Universal Serial Bus (USB) was developed in the mid-1990s to define cables, connectors and communication protocols for connecting devices to computers. It simplified expansion and supported real-time data for audio/video while ensuring compatibility across generations as speeds increased over time.
The document provides an overview of the PCI bus architecture. It discusses the history of PCI, how it works, and its advantages over other bus types. PCI was introduced in 1992 as an industry standard to provide direct memory access and higher performance compared to earlier bus standards like ISA. It utilizes plug and play technology to automatically configure new devices added to the motherboard. The PCI bus is expected to be replaced by the newer PCI Express standard to support higher data transfer rates required by modern devices.
The document discusses the Unified Power Format (UPF) standard for defining power intent and managing low power design verification. It provides an overview of UPF and describes some key UPF commands for defining power domains, supply ports and nets, power switches, power state tables, and level shifter strategies. The UPF standard allows specifying power intent separately from the design itself using the Tool Command Language (TCL) and helps enable power-aware simulation, synthesis and other tools in the design flow.
The document discusses low power design techniques in VLSI. It begins by explaining why low power has become important, especially with the rise of mobile devices. It then discusses the different sources of power consumption, including dynamic and static power. Several low power design techniques are covered, such as clock gating, multi-Vt libraries, multi-voltage design, and power gating. The document emphasizes analyzing power at the system level and using EDA tools to implement low power techniques throughout the design flow. Overall, it provides an overview of analyzing power consumption and the goals and methods of low power VLSI design.
AMBA AHB is a bus interface suitable for high-performance synthesizable designs. It defines the interface between components, such as masters, interconnects, and slaves.
This document provides an overview of the I2C communication protocol. It describes that I2C is a serial communication protocol used to connect slow devices like EEPROMs and ADCs. It can operate at speeds from 100 kbps to 5 Mbps and supports both single master-multi slave and multi master-multi slave configurations. The document outlines the electrical characteristics, bus features, data frame structure, data transfer process, clock synchronization, arbitration and advantages of the I2C protocol.
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is an interface bus commonly used to send data between microcontrollers and small peripherals such as shift registers, sensors, and SD cards.
This document discusses differential equations and related concepts. It defines a differential equation as an equation containing derivatives of dependent variables with respect to independent variables. A first order differential equation contains derivatives of degree one. The document also discusses orthogonal trajectories, solving differential equations for orthogonal curves, and provides an example of finding orthogonal trajectories given stream lines. Additionally, it mentions Newton's second law relating force and momentum, Kirchhoff's voltage law, and initial value problems for differential equations.
Building a Raspberry Pi Robot with Dot NET 8, Blazor and SignalR - Slides Onl...Peter Gallagher
In this session delivered at Leeds IoT, I talk about how you can control a 3D printed Robot Arm with a Raspberry Pi, .NET 8, Blazor and SignalR.
I also show how you can use a Unity app on an Meta Quest 3 to control the arm VR too.
You can find the GitHub repo and workshop instructions here;
https://bit.ly/dotnetrobotgithub
Google Calendar is a versatile tool that allows users to manage their schedules and events effectively. With Google Calendar, you can create and organize calendars, set reminders for important events, and share your calendars with others. It also provides features like creating events, inviting attendees, and accessing your calendar from mobile devices. Additionally, Google Calendar allows you to embed calendars in websites or platforms like SlideShare, making it easier for others to view and interact with your schedules.
3. History
The first real high-speed slot to be released was the VLB. The higher speed
was achieved by tying the slot to the CPU local bus, i.e., the CPU external
bus.
The first industry-wide solution appeared in 1992, when Intel lead the
industry to create “the definitive” expansion slot.Later, other companies
joined the alliance, which is known today as PCI-SIG (PCI Special Interest
Group). The PCI-SIG is responsible for standardizing the PCI, PCI-X and
PCI Express slots.Even though these names are similar, they refer to
completely different technologies.
4. History: The most common types of expansion slots that were launched for the PC
throughout its history
Bus Type Bus Width Bus Speed Bus Bandwidth
ISA - Industry Standard
Architecture
8/16 8.33 MHZ 8 MB/S | 16 MB/S
MCA - Micro Channel
Architecture
16/32 5 MHZ 10 MB/S | 20 MB/S
EISA - Extended Industry
Standard Architure
32 8.33 MHZ 33 MB/S
VESA Local Bus - Video
Electronics Standards Associations
32 25 - 40 MHZ 128 - 132 MB/S
PCI v1.0 - Peripheral
Component Interconnect
32 33 MHZ 133 MB/S
PCI v2.0 64 33 MHZ 264 MB/S
PCI X (Extended) v1.0 64 66 MHZ 512 MB/S
AGP - Accelerated Graphics
Ports
32 66 MHZ 266 - 2133 MB/S
PCI X v2.0 64 266 MHZ & 533 MHZ 2132 MB/S & 4266 MB/S
7. Difference between PCI,PCI-X,PCIe
PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect
The PCI is a platform-independent bus that is connected to the system using
a bridge chip (which is part of the motherboard chipset). Whenever a new
CPU is released, you can still use the same PCI bus by redesigning the
bridge chip instead of redesigning the bus, which was the norm before the
PCI bus was created.
On a motherboard using standard PCI slots, all PCI devices are connected to
the PCI bus and share the same data path, so a bottleneck (i.e., performance
decrease because more than one device wants to transmit data at the same
time) may occur.
8. Difference between PCI, PCI-X, PCIe
PCI - X (Peripheral Component Interconnect eXtended)
The PCI-X bus is a version of the PCI bus working at higher clock rates
and with wider data paths for server motherboards.
To achieve higher speeds without changing the PCI signaling model,
PCI‐X PLL (phase‐locked loop) clock generators that provide
phase‐shifted clocks internally. That allows the outputs to be driven a
little earlier and the inputs to be sampled a little later( latching,resulting
shorter setup time), improving the timing on the bus & increased the
time available for signal propagation on the bus and allowed higher
clock frequencies.
10. Difference between PCI, PCI-X, PCIe
PCIe - Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
The PCI-SIG developed a connection called PCI Express (formerly
known as “3GIO” ,PCI Express works radically different from the
PCI bus.
PCI is a bus, whereas PCI Express is a point-to-point connection,
i.e., it connects only two devices; no other device can share this
connection.
On a motherboard with PCI Express slots, each PCI Express slot
is connected to the motherboard chipset using a dedicated lane,
not sharing this lane (data path) with other PCI Express slots.
12. PCI vs PCIe - Communication Technology (Parallel to Serial)
Before the PCI Express, all PC buses and expansion slots used parallel
communication.
In parallel communication several bits are transferred on the data path at the
same time.
In serial communication, only one bit is transferred on the data path per clock
cycle.
Parallel communication, though, suffers from some issues the higher the
clock, the greater will be the problems with electromagnetic interference
(EMI) and propagation delay.
13. PCI vs PCIe - From Parallel to Serial
Each bit in parallel communication is transmitted on a separate wire,
data transmitted through shorter wires arrive before the data that are
transmitted through longer wires.
This cause propagation delay and becomes worse with the increase
in the clock rates.
On a typical serial communication, four wires are necessary – two
for transmitting data and two for receiving.
14. PCI vs PCIe - From Parallel to Serial
Usually with a technique against electromagnetic interference called
“cancellation or differential transmission”.
With the cancellation, the same signal is transmitted on two wires, with the
second wire transmitting the signal “mirrored” (inverted polarity) compared to
the original signal.
When the receiver gets the signal, it can compare the two signals, which must
be equal but “mirrored.” The difference between the two signals is noise,
making it very simple for the receiver to know what noise is and to discard it.
15. Difference between Parallel to Serial communication
Parallel communication is usually half-duplex (the same wires are used to
transmit and to receive data) due to the high number of wires that are
necessary for its implementation.
With a half-duplex communication, two devices can’t talk to each other at
the same time; either one or the other is transmitting data.
Serial communication is full-duplex (there is a separate set of wires to
transmit data and another set of wires to receive data) because it needs just
two wires each way.
With full-duplex communication, both devices can be transmitting data at
the same time.
16. “Isn’t serial communication slower ?”
It depends on what you are comparing.
If you compare a parallel communication of 33 MHz transmitting 32 bits per
clock cycle, it will be 32 times faster than a serial communication of 33 MHz
transmitting only one bit at a time.
However, if you compare the same parallel communication to a serial
communication working at a much higher clock rate, the serial communication
may be, in fact, much faster. Just compare the bandwidth of the original PCI
bus, which is 133 MB/s (33 MHz x 32 bits), with the lowest bandwidth you
can achieve with a PCI Express connection (250 MB/s, 2.5 GHz x 1 bit).
18. PCI uses three models for data transfer just as previous bus models did:
Programmed I/O (PIO), DMA and Peer‐to‐peer.
PCI Bus Architecture Perspective
a
PCI Transaction Models
19. PIO was commonly used in the early days of the PC because designers were
reluctant to add the expense or complexity to their devices of transaction
management logic. The processor could do the job faster than any other device
any‐way so, in this model, it handles all the work.
For example, if a PCI device interrupts the CPU to indicate that it needs to put
data in memory, the CPU will end up reading data from the PCI device into an
internal register and then copying that register to memory.
The process works but is inefficient for two reasons. First, there are two bus
cycles generated by the CPU for every data transfer, and second, the CPU is
busy with data transfer housekeeping rather than more interesting work.
PCI Bus Architecture Perspective
a
Programmed I/O
20. In this model another device, called a DMA engine, handles the details of memory
transfers to a peripheral on behalf of the processor.
Once the CPU has programmed the starting address and byte count into it, the DMA
engine handled the bus protocol and address sequencing on its own. This didn’t
involve any change to the PCI peripherals and allowed them to keep their low‐cost
designs. Later, improved integration allowed peripherals to integrate this DMA
functionality locally, so they didn’t need an external DMA engine. These devices
were capable of handling their own bus transfers and were called Bus Master
devices.
The DMA method of data transfer is more efficient because the CPU is not involved
in the data movement, and a single bus cycle may be sufficient to move a block of
data.
PCI Bus Architecture Perspective
a
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
21. PCI Bus Master could initiate a transfer to another PCI device, with the result that the
entire transaction remains local to the PCI bus and doesn’t involve any other system
resources. Since this transaction takes place between devices that are considered peers
in the system, it’s referred to as a peer‐to‐peer transaction.
This has some obvious efficiencies because the rest of the system remains free to do
other work. Nevertheless, it’s rarely used in practice because the initiator and target
don’t often use the same format for the data unless both are made by the same vendor.
Consequently, the data usually must first be sent to memory where the CPU can
reformat it before it is then transferred to the target, defeating the goal of a peer‐to‐peer
transfer.Since PCI devices today are almost all capable of being bus‐master, they are
able to do both DMA and peer‐to‐peer transfers.
PCI Bus Architecture Perspective
a
Peer to Peer
22. Basics of PCI Based System
PCI connects the CPU with some things that are attached to a PC via the PCI: graphic
card, memory, USB controllers, SATA controllers.
BDF (or B/D/F) stands for Bus, Device, Function.
The PCI specification permits a system to host up to 256 buses. (8 bits)
Each bus can have up to 32 devices. (5 bits)
Each device can have up to 8 functions. (3 bits)
Each function of device is idetified by 16 bit address(bus_addrs,device,function)
Every PCI device has a unique vendor and device ID, device number distinguishes
between PCI devices with the same vendor and device ID.
23. Basics of PCI Based System
The system includes a North Bridge (called “north” because if the diagram is
viewed as a map, it appears geographically north of the central PCI bus) that
interfaces between the processor and the PCI bus. Associated with the North
Bridge is the processor bus, system memory bus, AGP graphics bus, and PCI.
Several devices share the PCI bus and are either connected directly to the bus
or plugged into an add‐in card connector.
A South Bridge connects PCI to system peripherals, such as the ISA bus
where legacy peripherals were carried forward for a few years. The South
Bridge was typically also the central resource for PCI that pro‐ vided system
signals like reset, reference clock, and error reporting.
25. Why PCI to PCI Bridge ?
Due to some practical electrical limit PCI support only10 to 12 electrical loads
at the base frequency of 33MHz.
To connect more loads in a system,the solution was to move PCI out of the
main path between system peripherals and memory and replacing the chipset
interconnect PCI‐to‐PCI bridge
A PCI Bridge is an extension to the topology. Each Bridge creates a new PCI
bus that is electrically isolated from the bus above it, allowing another 10‐12
loads. Some of these devices could also be bridges, allowing a large number
of devices to be connected in a system. The PCI architecture allows up to 256
buses in a single system and each of those buses can have up to 32 devices.
27. PCI Bus Transactions
Every function is capable of acting as a target for transactions on the bus, and
most will also be able to initiate transactions. Such an initiator (called a Bus
Master) has a pair of pins (REQ# and GNT#) dedicated to arbitrating for use
of the shared PCI bus.
Request (REQ#) pin indicates that the master needs to use the bus and is sent
to the bus arbiter for evaluation against all the other requests at that moment.
The arbiter decides which requester should be the next owner of the bus and
asserts the Grant (GNT#) pin for that device.
PCI Initiator & Target
29. Data Transfer Signal on PCI Bus
Name Function
CLK A 33-MHz or 66MHz clock
FRAME# Sent by the initiator to indicate the duration of a
transaction
AD 32 address/data lines, which may be optionally
increased to 64
C/BE# 4 command/byte-enable lines (8 for 64-bit bus)
IRDY#,
TRDY#
Initiator-ready and Target-ready signals
DEVSEL# A response from the device indicating that it has
recognized its Address and is ready for a data
transfer transaction
IDSEL# Initialization Device Select
30. PCI architecture supports 3 address spaces
32 bit & 64 bit Memory address mapping
I/O mapping
Configuration address space
PCI Bus Address Space Mapping
history of slots refer website ---- https://www.hardwaresecrets.com/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-pci-express/
http://www.sopto.com/st/pci-e-card-knowledge/pci-express-history-and-revisions --- history of pcie
PCIe 3.0, PCIe 2.0, PCIe 1.1 Differences--- https://www.trentonsystems.com/blog/pci-express-interface
for reference --- https://www.hardwaresecrets.com/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-pci-express/
A bus is a data path where you can attach several devices at the same time, sharing this data path. The most obvious devices attached to the PCI bus were expansion slots, but integrated components available on the motherboard such as an on-board network chip could be connected to the PCI bus.
1)achieving higher bandwidth for devices that demanded more speed, such as high-end network cards and RAID controllers.
2)When the PCI bus proved to be too slow for high-end video cards, the AGP slot was developed. This slot was used exclusively for video cards.
When the PCI bus proved to be too slow for high-end video cards, the AGP slot was developed. This slot was used exclusively for video cards.
Also, devices integrated on the motherboard, such as network, SATA, and USB controllers, are usually connected to the motherboard chipset using dedicated PCI Express connections.
When electric current flows through a wire, an electromagnetic field is created around it. This field may induce electrical current on the adjacent wire, corrupting the information being transmitted on it. The higher the clock, the greater the electromagnetic interference problem.
the receiving device must wait for all the bits to arrive in order to process the complete data, this cause significant loss in performance
Besides providing higher immunity to electromagnetic interference, serial communications don't suffer from propagation delays. This way, they can achieve higher clock rates more easily than parallel communications.
In the early days the single‐tasking processor didn't have much else to do. These types of inefficiencies are typically not acceptable in modern systems.However, programmed IO is still a necessary transaction model in order for software to interact with a device.
The reason having only 10 - 12 loads is bus uses a technique called “reflected‐wave signaling” to reduce the power consumption on the bus
According to the protocol, whenever the previous transaction finishes and the bus goes idle, whichever device sees its GNT# asserted at that time is designated as the next Bus Master and can begin its transaction.
The round arrow symbol shown on the AD bus indicates that the tri‐stated bus is undergoing a “turn‐around cycle” as ownership of the signals changes (needed here because this is a read transaction; the initiator drives the address but receives data on the same pins).