Diabetic cataract
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Cataracts are a major cause of blindness in diabetic patients. The pathogenesis involves the polyol pathway where high glucose levels increase aldose reductase and lead to accumulation of sorbitol in the lens, causing osmotic stress. This induces apoptosis in lens epithelial cells and development of cataracts. Diabetic patients have higher risks of complications after cataract surgery compared to nondiabetics. Aldose reductase inhibitors and antioxidants from plants like ocimum sanctum have been shown to help prevent or treat cataracts.
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Aki
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a deterioration of renal function over hours to days resulting in failure to excrete waste and maintain homeostasis. [1] There are over 35 AKI definitions showing its complexity. [2] It can be classified as oliguric/non-oliguric or prerenal, renal, postrenal. [3] Prerenal and acute tubular necrosis account for most hospital AKI cases. [4] Management involves diagnosis through tests and imaging, and treatment focusing on fluid balance, electrolytes, and potentially renal replacement therapy. [5] The prognosis remains poor especially in critically ill patients, as currently the condition can only be supported but not cured. [6
C11 management of adult diabetic ketoacidosis
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Retinoscopy is an objective technique used to determine a person's refractive error and need for corrective lenses. It involves projecting light into the eye and observing the movement of the reflected light, called the red reflex, as lenses of varying powers are introduced. The examiner finds the lens power that causes the red reflex to appear brightest, widest, and move with the slowest speed, indicating the eye's neutral point and refractive error. For astigmatism, two perpendicular meridians must be neutralized, which may require different lens powers. The results are recorded and converted to a prescription, subtracting any working distance from the spherical power only. Retinoscopy provides an efficient way to measure a patient's refractive
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Diabetic cataract
- 2. INTRODUCTION • CATARACT IN DIABETIC PATIENTS IS A MAJOR CAUSE OF BLINDNESS IN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. • THE PATHOGENESIS OF DIABETIC CATARACT DEVELOPMENT IS STILL NOT FULLY UNDERSTOOD. • RECENT BASIC RESEARCH STUDIES HAVE EMPHASIZED THE ROLE OF THE POLYOL PATHWAY IN THE INITIATION OF THE DISEASE PROCESS.
- 3. • DIABETIC PATIENTS ALSO HAVE A HIGHER RISK OF COMPLICATIONS AFTER PHACOEMULSIFICATION CATARACT SURGERY COMPARED TO NONDIABETICS. • ALDOSE-REDUCTASE INHIBITORS AND ANTIOXIDANTS HAVE BEEN PROVEN BENEFICIAL IN THE PREVENTION OR TREATMENT OF THIS SIGHTTHREATENING CONDITION.
- 4. PATHOGENESIS • THE ENZYME ALDOSE REDUCTASE (AR) CATALYZES THE REDUCTION OF GLUCOSE TO SORBITOL THROUGH THE POLYOL PATHWAY, A PROCESS LINKED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DIABETIC CATARACT. • IT HAS BEEN SHOWN THAT THE INTRACELLULAR ACCUMULATION OF SORBITOL LEADS TO OSMOTIC CHANGES RESULTING IN HYDROPIC LENS FIBERS THAT DEGENERATE AND FORM SUGAR CATARACTS .
- 6. • IN THE LENS, SORBITOL IS PRODUCED FASTER THAN IT IS CONVERTED TO FRUCTOSE BY THE ENZYME SORBITOL DEHYDROGENASE. IN ADDITION , THE POLAR CHARACTER OF SORBITOL PREVENTS ITS INTRACELLULAR REMOVAL THROUGH DIFFUSION. THE INCREASED ACCUMULATION OF SORBITOL CREATES A HYPEROSMOTIC EFFECT THAT RESULTS IN AN INFUSION OF FLUID TO COUNTERVAIL THE OSMOTIC GRADIENT. • THE OSMOTIC STRESS IN THE LENS CAUSED BY SORBITOL ACCUMULATION INDUCES APOPTOSIS IN LENS EPITHELIAL CELLS (LEC) LEADING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CATARACT.
- 7. • THE ROLE OF OSMOTIC STRESS IS PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR THE RAPID CATARACT FORMATION IN YOUNG PATIENTS WITH TYPE 1 DIABETES MELLITUS DUE TO THE EXTENSIVE SWELLING OF CORTICAL LENS FIBERS. • OSMOTIC STRESS CAUSED BY THE ACCUMULATION OF SORBITOL INDUCES STRESS IN THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER), THE PRINCIPAL SITE OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, ULTIMATELY LEADING TO THE GENERATION OF FREE RADICALS. • ER STRESS MAY ALSO RESULT FROM FLUCTUATIONS OF GLUCOSE LEVELS INITIATING AN UNFOLDED PROTEIN RESPONSE (UPR) THAT GENERATES REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES (ROS) AND CAUSES OXIDATIVE STRESS DAMAGE TO LENS FIBERS.
- 9. • IN ADDITION TO INCREASED LEVELS OF FREE RADICALS [ HYDROXYL RADICALS (OH–), NITRIC OXIDE (NO•) AND SUPEROXIDE RADICALS (O2−)], DIABETIC LENSES SHOW AN IMPAIRED ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY, INCREASING THEIR SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OXIDATIVE STRESS. THE LOSS OF ANTIOXIDANTS IS EXACERBATED BY GLYCATION AND INACTIVATION OF LENS ANTIOXIDANT ENZYMES LIKE SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASES. • COPPER-ZINK SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE 1 (SOD1) IS THE MOST DOMINANT SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE ISOENZYME IN THE LENS, WHICH IS IMPORTANT FOR THE DEGRADATION OF SUPEROXIDERADICALS (O2−) INTO HYDROGEN PEROXIDE (H2O2) AND OXYGEN.
- 10. NPDR e’ Cataract PDR e’ Cataract
- 11. CATARACT SURGERY IN DIABETIC PATIENTS • PHACOMULSIFICATION IS NOWADAYS THE PREFERRED TECHNIQUE IN MOST TYPES OF CATARACT. THIS TECHNIQUE WAS DEVELOPED BY KELMAN IN 1967 AND WAS NOT WIDELY ACCEPTED UNTIL 1996. • IT RESULTS IN LESS POSTOPERATIVE INFLAMMATION AND ASTIGMATISM, MORE RAPID VISUAL REHABILITATION AND, WITH MODERN FOLDABLE LENSES, A LOWER INCIDENCE OF CAPSULOTOMY THAN WITH THE OUTDATED EXTRACAPSULAR SURGERY. • THERE HAS BEEN A RECENT SHIFT IN EMPHASIS TOWARDS EARLIER CATARACT EXTRACTION IN DIABETICS. • CATARACT SURGERY IS ADVISABLE BEFORE LENS OPACITY PRECLUDES DETAILED FUNDUS EXAMINATION.
- 12. • WHILE THE OVERALL OUTCOMES OF CATARACT SURGERY ARE EXCELLENT, PATIENTS WITH DIABETES MAY HAVE POORER VISION OUTCOMES THAN THOSE WITHOUT DIABETES. • SURGERY MAY CAUSE A RAPID ACCELERATION OF RETINOPATHY, INDUCE RUBEOSIS OR LEAD TO MACULAR CHANGES, SUCH AS MACULAR EDEMA OR CYSTOID MACULAR EDEMA. • THE WORST OUTCOMES MAY OCCUR IN OPERATED EYES WITH ACTIVE PROLIFERATIVE RETINOPATHY AND/OR PREEXISTING MACULAR EDEMA.
- 13. • IN DIABETICS WITH OR WITHOUT EVIDENCE OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY THE BLOOD- AQUEOUS BARRIER IS IMPAIRED LEADING TO AN INCREASED RISK OF POSTOPERATIVE INFLAMMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SIGHT-THREATENING MACULAREDEMA,APROCESS THAT IS EXACERBATED BY CATARACT SURGERY. • FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE AMOUNT OF POSTOPERATIVE INFLAMMATION AND THE INCIDENCE OF CLINICAL AND ANGIOGRAPHIC CYSTOID MACULAR EDEMA ARE DURATION OF SURGERY, WOUND SIZE AND POSTERIOR CAPSULAR RUPTURE OR VITREOUS LOSS.
- 14. • PHACOEMULSIFICATION SURGERY AFFECTS THE BLOOD-AQUEOUS BARRIER MORE SEVERELY IN DIABETIC PATIENTS WITH PROLIFERATIVE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY THAN IN PATIENTS WITH NONPROLIFERATIVE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY OR NONDIABETIC PATIENTS. • THE RATE OF CYSTOID MACULAR EDEMA DIAGNOSIS AFTER CATARACT SURGERY WAS SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER IN DIABETIC PATIENTS THAN IN NONDIABETICS. • THE ONSET OR WORSENING OF MACULA EDEMA AT 6 MONTHS FOLLOWING CATARACT SURGERY IN PATIENTS WITH MILD OR MODERATE NONPROLIFERATIVE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY (INCIDENCE 29%).
- 15. MACULAR EDEMA FOLLOWING CATARACT SURGERY IN A DIABETIC PATIENT: • A 72-YEAR-OLD DIABETIC MAN UNDERWENT UNEVENTFUL LEFT CATARACT SURGERY. • PREOPERATIVELY, HE HAD MILD DIABETIC MACULOPATHY WITH ONLY MINIMAL CYSTOID SPACES NOTED.
- 16. • POSTOPERATIVELY, VISION IMPROVED SOON AFTER SURGERY TO 20/20 BUT 3 WEEKS LATER DETERIORATED TO 20/40. FUNDUS PHOTOGRAPHS-COLOR (TOP LEFT), RED FREE (TOP MIDDLE), AND INFRARED (TOP RIGHT) .
- 17. • 3 WEEKS' POST-SURGERY, DEPICTING MICROVASCULAR DIABETIC CHANGES. OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY (OCT) SCAN SHOWED CYSTOID CHANGES AT THE FOVEA WITH CLEAR LARGE CENTRAL CYSTOID SPACES (RED ARROWHEADS) AND SMALLER HYPER- REFLECTIVE PARAFOVEAL SPACES (YELLOW ARROWHEADS) AS WELL AS HYPER-REFLECTIVE DOTS IN THE OUTER NUCLEAR LAYER (WHITE ARROWS).
- 18. • SIX WEEKS AFTER TREATMENT WITH PREDNISOLONE AND NON-STEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY EYE DROPS, OCT SCAN SHOWED NEAR COMPLETE RESOLUTION OF THE CLEAR CENTRAL CYSTOID SPACES (PSEUDOPHAKIC MACULAR EDEMA COMPONENT). • HIS FINAL VISION WAS 20/20.
- 19. ANTICATARACT TREATMENT • ALDOSE-REDUCTASE INHIBITORS : SOME OF NATURAL PRODUCTS WITH KNOWN AR INHIBITORY ACTIVITY ARE EXTRACTS FROM INDIGENOUS PLANTS LIKE OCIMUM SANCTUM, WITHANIA SOMNIFERA, CURCUMA LONGA, AND AZADIRACHTA INDICA OR THE INDIAN HERBAL DIABECON. • NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS: SUCH AS SULINDAC , ASPIRIN, OR NAPROXEN. NEPAFENAC, A TOPICAL NSAID INDICATED FOR THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ANTERIOR SEGMENT PAIN AND INFLAMMATION AFTER CATARACT SURGERY. • ANTIOXIDANT: ANTIOXIDANT VITAMINS ON CATARACT DEVELOPMENT IS SMALL AND MAY NOT PROVE TO BE CLINICALLY RELEVANT.
- 20. Ocimum sanctum الريحان المقدس Curcuma longa الكركم Natural sources of ARI Azadirachta indica النيم الهندى Withania somnifera العبعب المنوم - األشواجندا