The document discusses data link control protocols that manage the exchange of data over a communication link. It covers several important topics: 1) Framing involves packing data bits into distinguishable frames using techniques like byte stuffing and bit stuffing. 2) Flow and error control ensure reliable data transmission by preventing buffer overflows and allowing retransmission of corrupted frames. Common methods are stop-and-wait and sliding window protocols. 3) Specific protocols like go-back-N and selective reject are examined, combining framing, flow control, and error handling over noiseless and noisy channels. Utilization rates under different protocols are also calculated.

1. Eighth Edition
by William Stallings
Chapter 7 – Data Link Control Protocols
Data Link Control Protocols
• need layer of logic above Physical
• to manage exchange of data over a link
– frame synchronization
– flow control
– error control
– addressing
– control and data
– link management

2. 11-1 FRAMING
The data link layer needs to pack bits into frames, so that each
frame is distinguishable from another. Our postal system
practices a type of framing. The simple act of inserting a letter
into an envelope separates one piece of information from
another; the envelope serves as the delimiter.
Figure 11.1 A frame in a character-oriented protocol

3. Figure 11.2 Byte stuffing and unstuffing
Byte stuffing is the process of adding 1 extra byte
whenever there is a flag or escape character in the text.

4. Figure 11.3 A frame in a bit-oriented protocol
Bit stuffing is the
process of adding
one extra 0
whenever five
consecutive 1s
follow a 0 in the
data, so that the
receiver does not
mistake the pattern
0111110 for a flag.
Figure 11.4 Bit stuffing and unstuffing

5. FLOW AND
ERROR
CONTROL
Flow control refers to a
set of procedures used
to restrict the amount
of data that the sender
can send before
waiting for
acknowledgment.
Error control in the
data link layer is
based on automatic
repeat request, which
is the retransmission
of data.
• ensure sending entity does not
overwhelm receiving entity
– by preventing buffer overflow
• influenced by:
– transmission time
• time taken to emit all bits into
medium
– propagation time
• time for a bit to traverse the
link
• assume here no errors but varying
delays
Flow Control
The most important responsibilities of the
data link layer are flow control and error
control. Collectively, these functions are
known as data link control.

6. Error Control
• Detection and correction of errors such as:
– lost frames
– damaged frames
• common techniques use:
– error detection
– positive acknowledgment
– retransmission after timeout
– negative acknowledgement & retransmission
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
• collective name for such error control mechanisms,
including:
• Stop and Wait
• Sliding Window
– go back N
– selective reject (selective retransmission)

7. 11-3 PROTOCOLS
Now let us see how the data link layer can combine framing, flow
control, and error control to achieve the delivery of data from one node
to another. The protocols are normally implemented in software by
using one of the common programming languages.

8. 11-4 NOISELESS CHANNELS
Let us first assume we have an ideal channel in which no frames are
lost, duplicated, or corrupted. We introduce two protocols for this type
of channel.

9. Model of
Frame
Transmiss
ion

10. Stop and Wait
• source transmits frame
• destination receives
frame and replies with
acknowledgement (ACK)
• source waits for ACK
before sending next
• destination can stop flow
by not send ACK
• works well for a few large
frames
• Stop and wait becomes
inadequate if large block
of data is split into small
frames

11. Stop and Wait
• pros and cons
– simple
– inefficient
• source transmits single
frame
• wait for ACK
• if received frame
damaged, discard it
– transmitter has timeout
– if no ACK within timeout,
retransmit
• if ACK
damaged,transmitter will
not recognize it
– transmitter will retransmit
– receive gets two copies of
frame
– use alternate numbering
and ACK0 / ACK1

12. Sliding Windows Flow Control
• allows multiple numbered frames to be in transit
• receiver has buffer W long
• transmitter sends up to W frames without ACK
• ACK includes number of next frame expected
• sequence number is bounded by size of field (k)
– frames are numbered modulo 2k
– giving max window size of up to 2k - 1
• receiver can ack frames without permitting
further transmission (Receive Not Ready)
• must send a normal acknowledge to resume
• if have full-duplex link, can piggyback ACks

13. Sliding Window Diagram

14. Sliding Window Example

15. Go Back N
• based on sliding window
• if no error, ACK as usual
• use window to control number of outstanding frames
• if error, reply with rejection
– discard that frame and all future frames until error frame received
correctly
– transmitter must go back and retransmit that frame and all
subsequent frames
• Damaged Frame
– error in frame i so receiver rejects frame i
– transmitter retransmits frames from i
• Lost Frame
– frame i lost and either
• transmitter sends i+1 and receiver gets frame i+1 out of seq and
rejects frame i
• or transmitter times out and send ACK with P bit set which receiver
responds to with ACK i
– transmitter then retransmits frames from i

16. Go Back
N
Diagram

17. Go Back N - Handling
• Damaged Acknowledgement
– receiver gets frame i, sends ack (i+1) which is lost
– acks are cumulative, so next ack (i+n) may arrive
before transmitter times out on frame i
– if transmitter times out, it sends ack with P bit set
– can be repeated a number of times before a reset
procedure is initiated
• Damaged Rejection
– reject for damaged frame is lost
– handled as for lost frame when transmitter times out

18. Selective Reject
• also called selective retransmission
• only rejected frames are retransmitted
• subsequent frames are accepted by the receiver
and buffered
• minimizes retransmission
• receiver must maintain large enough buffer
• more complex logic in transmitter
• hence less widely used
• useful for satellite links with long propagation
delays

19. Selective
-Reject
Diagram

20. Utilization under SW Flow Control
• Utilization = U = frame time / total time
• U = 1/1+2a
• a = Propagation Time / Transmission Time
• a = Medium length in bits / Frame length in
bits Station s1 sends f1
Station s2 sends an acknowledgment
Station s1 sends f2
Station s2 sends an acknowledgment
.
.
.
Station s1 sends fn
Station s2 sends an acknowledgment
CALCULATION OF U

21. • Total time to send the data=T=nTf
• Tf=time to send and receive an acknowledgment
– Tf=Tframe+Tprop+Tproc+ Tack + Tprop+Tproc
• Tprop=propagation time from s1 to s2
• Tframe=time to transmit a frame
• Tproc=processing time (negligible)
• Tack=time to transmit an acknowledgment(very small as
compared to data frame)
• T=2Tprop+Tframe
• For n frames T=n(2Tprop+Tframe)
• Of that time only n x Tframe is actually spent transmitting data
and the rest is overhead,therefore the utilization or efficiency
of the line is
• U= (n x Tframe )/n(2Tprop+Tframe)
= Tframe/(2Tprop+Tframe)
• If a=Tprop/Tframe then
• U=1/(1+2a)
CALCULATION OF U

22. Utilization with Sliding Window Flow Control
• N > 2a + 1
for
• N < 2a + 1
for
N
2a + 1
U =
U = 1