The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to destination. The routing algorithm is the piece of software that decides where a packet goes next (e.g., which output line, or which node on a broadcast channel).For connectionless networks, the routing decision is made for each datagram. For connection-oriented networks, the decision is made once, at circuit setup time.
Routing Issues
The routing algorithm must deal with the following issues:
Correctness and simplicity: networks are never taken down; individual parts (e.g., links, routers) may fail, but the whole network should not.
Stability: if a link or router fails, how much time elapses before the remaining routers recognize the topology change? (Some never do..)
Fairness and optimality: an inherently intractable problem. Definition of optimality usually doesn't consider fairness. Do we want to maximize channel usage? Minimize average delay?
When we look at routing in detail, we'll consider both adaptive--those that take current traffic and topology into consideration--and nonadaptive algorithms.
Network layer - design Issues ,Store-and-Forward Packet Switching, Services Provided to the Transport Layer, Which service is the best , Implementation of Service , Implementation of Connectionless Service , Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol layer that transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network (WAN) or between nodes on the same local area network (LAN) segment.
The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to destination. The routing algorithm is the piece of software that decides where a packet goes next (e.g., which output line, or which node on a broadcast channel).For connectionless networks, the routing decision is made for each datagram. For connection-oriented networks, the decision is made once, at circuit setup time.
Routing Issues
The routing algorithm must deal with the following issues:
Correctness and simplicity: networks are never taken down; individual parts (e.g., links, routers) may fail, but the whole network should not.
Stability: if a link or router fails, how much time elapses before the remaining routers recognize the topology change? (Some never do..)
Fairness and optimality: an inherently intractable problem. Definition of optimality usually doesn't consider fairness. Do we want to maximize channel usage? Minimize average delay?
When we look at routing in detail, we'll consider both adaptive--those that take current traffic and topology into consideration--and nonadaptive algorithms.
Network layer - design Issues ,Store-and-Forward Packet Switching, Services Provided to the Transport Layer, Which service is the best , Implementation of Service , Implementation of Connectionless Service , Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service
To transmit the data from one node to another, data link layer combines framing, flow control & error control schemes.
We divide the discussion protocols into those that can be used for noiseless(error free) channels and those that can be used for noisy (error creating) channels.
Have you ever wondered how search works while visiting an e-commerce site, internal website, or searching through other types of online resources? Look no further than this informative session on the ways that taxonomies help end-users navigate the internet! Hear from taxonomists and other information professionals who have first-hand experience creating and working with taxonomies that aid in navigation, search, and discovery across a range of disciplines.
Acorn Recovery: Restore IT infra within minutesIP ServerOne
Introducing Acorn Recovery as a Service, a simple, fast, and secure managed disaster recovery (DRaaS) by IP ServerOne. A DR solution that helps restore your IT infra within minutes.
This presentation by Morris Kleiner (University of Minnesota), was made during the discussion “Competition and Regulation in Professions and Occupations” held at the Working Party No. 2 on Competition and Regulation on 10 June 2024. More papers and presentations on the topic can be found out at oe.cd/crps.
This presentation was uploaded with the author’s consent.
0x01 - Newton's Third Law: Static vs. Dynamic AbusersOWASP Beja
f you offer a service on the web, odds are that someone will abuse it. Be it an API, a SaaS, a PaaS, or even a static website, someone somewhere will try to figure out a way to use it to their own needs. In this talk we'll compare measures that are effective against static attackers and how to battle a dynamic attacker who adapts to your counter-measures.
About the Speaker
===============
Diogo Sousa, Engineering Manager @ Canonical
An opinionated individual with an interest in cryptography and its intersection with secure software development.
Sharpen existing tools or get a new toolbox? Contemporary cluster initiatives...Orkestra
UIIN Conference, Madrid, 27-29 May 2024
James Wilson, Orkestra and Deusto Business School
Emily Wise, Lund University
Madeline Smith, The Glasgow School of Art
2. Introduction
If frame gets lost,damage,or corrupted during
transmission, then retransmission of that
frame is called ERROR CONTROL....
The error control technique is also known as
Automatic Repeat Request(ARQ)..
3. Automatic Repeat Request(ARQ)..
The ARQ is error control technique..
In this technique, if the data transmitted by the sender
arrives at the receiver without any problem, then the receiver
reverts by sending an acknowledgment(ACK).
On the contrary to this, if the data to be transmitted gets lost
or corrupted in between then the receiver sends a negative
acknowledgment(NAK).
Consequently, the sender retransmit the same data
again.
There is also provision of the timer with the sender so that if
ACK gets lost on the way, then the sender can again
retransmit the same data again.
4. Types of ARQ...
ARQ technique
Sliding Window
Protocol
Stop and Wait
ARQ
Go-Back-N Selective Reject
5. The sliding window ARQ technique has two
two categories, namely,
1. Go-Back –N
2. Selective Repeat
6. • Concept
– Introduce a window of size n
– Can inject n packets into net before hearing an ACK
• Sliding window
– Label each packet with a sequence number
– A window is a collection of adjacent sequence numbers
– The size of the collection is the sender’s window size
7. Go-Back-N ARQ
• We can send up to W frames before worrying
about ACKs.
• We keep a copy of these frames until the ACKs
arrive.
• This procedure requires additional features to
be added to Stop-and-Wait ARQ.
8. Go-Back-N ARQ, normal operation
• The sender keeps track of the outstanding frames and
updates the variables and windows as the ACKs arrive.
9.
10. In above, example
It can be seen in figure that error occurs in
Frame 5.Hence the receiver sends negative
acknowledgment of Frame 5 to the sender.
In such a case, the sender needs to retransmit
Frame 5 and all the succeeding frames
(Frame 6 and Frame 7)
11. Go-Back-N ARQ, lost frame
• Frame 2 is lost
• When the
receiver receives
frame 3, it
discards frame 3
as it is expecting
frame 2
(according to
window).
• After the timer
for frame 2
expires at the
sender site, the
sender sends
frame 2 and 3.
(go back to 2)
12. Go-Back-N ARQ, damaged/lost/delayed ACK
• If an ACK is damaged/lost, we can have two situations:
• If the next ACK arrives before the expiration of any timer,
there is no need for retransmission of frames because
ACKs are cumulative in this protocol.
• If ACK1, ACK2, and ACk3 are lost, ACK4 covers them if it
arrives before the timer expires.
• If ACK4 arrives after time-out, the last frame and all the
frames after that are resent.
• Receiver never resends an ACK.
• A delayed ACK also triggers the resending of frames
13. Go-Back-N ARQ, sender window size
• Size of the sender window must be less than 2 m. Size of the
receiver is always 1. If m = 2, window size = 2 m – 1 = 3.
• Fig compares a window size of 3 and 4.
Accepts as
the 1st
frame in
the next
cycle-an
error
14. Selective Repeat ARQ, sender and receiver windows
• Go-Back-N ARQ simplifies the process at the receiver site. Receiver only keeps
track of only one variable, and there is no need to buffer out-of-order frames,
they are simply discarded.
• However, Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is inefficient for noisy link. It bandwidth
inefficient and slows down the transmission.
• In Selective Repeat ARQ, only the damaged frame is resent. More bandwidth
efficient but more complex processing at receiver.
• It defines a negative ACK (NAK) to report the sequence number of a damaged
frame before the timer expires.
15. Selective Repeat ARQ, lost frame • Frames 0 and 1
are accepted
when received
because they
are in the range
specified by the
receiver
window. Same
for frame 3.
• Receiver sends
a NAK2 to show
that frame 2
has not been
received and
then sender
resends only
frame 2 and it is
accepted as it is
in the range of
the window.
16. Selective Repeat ARQ, sender window size
• Size of the sender and receiver windows must be at most one-half of 2 m. If m =
2, window size should be 2 m /2 = 2. Fig compares a window size of 2 with a
window size of 3. Window size is 3 and all ACKs are lost, sender sends duplicate
of frame 0, window of the receiver expect to receive frame 0 (part of the
window), so accepts frame 0, as the 1st frame of the next cycle – an error.