D18cl124 internship_report

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF RESIDENTIAL
BUILDINGS
A Report
Submitted for
Partial fulfillment of the requirements
For the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
Civil Engineering
By
PATEL DHRUV JITENDRABHAI
ID No: D18CL124
Under the supervision of
MRS. NEHA RAJPUT
February – March 2021
MANUBHAI SHIVABHAI PATEL DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
CHAROTAR UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
CHANGA – 388421, GUJARAT, INDIA

ABSTRACT
This report is a summer internship report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
summer internship FEBRUARY 2021. Many new things I learn from this course. The
Report consists of the “ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BUILDING” in details. I put my
best in this report and elaborate the actual site condition. The main objective of the
report is to present a systematic text on the selected topics. This report presents the
work which has been performed during the days of the internship.
All the problems were discussed and resolved with the help of the site engineer. The
purpose of the internship is that we can deal with the real life structure and get the
practical knowledge instead of the theoretical knowledge & how to apply the
theoretical knowledge to the site. Structural design is the primary aspect of civil
engineering. The foremost basic in structural engineering is the design of simple
basic components and members of a building viz., slabs, Beams, Columns and
Footings. In order to design them, it is important to first obtain the plan of the
particular building. Thereby depending on the suitability: plan layout of beams and
the position of column are fixed. The structure design system involves preliminary
analysis, proportioning of member, detailed analysis and evolution.

CONTENTS
(1) INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………..……...03
(2) EARTHQUAKE DESIGN OF BUILDING….…..……………….…………….10
(3) RESIDANTIAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION DETAILS……………..……11
(4) P.C.C.WORK ………………………….…..………………………...…………19
(5) FOUNDATION WORK ……………..…..…………..…………………………27
(6) PLINTH BEAM LEVEL ……..………………..…..…………………….…......35
(7) DESIGN OF COLUMN …..……………………………………..…….....… ..38
(8) DESIGN OF BEAM ………………………………………………………..…..48
(9) DESIGN OF SLAB LEVEL……..……………………………...………..……..52
(10) DESIGN OF STAIRCASE………………….………………………...………63
(11) DESIGN OF ELECTRIC LAYOUT…………………………………....……..70
(13) DESIGN OF ELEVATION……………………………………………………78
(14) CONCLUSION…………………………………………..……..…….………..83

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 CONCRETE FOUNDATION………………………………………………4
Figure 1.2 MASONRY WORK………………………………………………………….……..5
Figure 1.3 PLASTARING WORK…………………………………………………6
Figure 1.4 CONCRETE COVER………………………………………………….9
Figure 1.5 ASPECT FOR COLUMN …………………………………………….9
Figure 1.6 RRC STRUCTURE…………………………………………………...9
Figure 2.1 EARTHQUAKE STRUCTURESHAPE ……………………………10
Figure 3.1 1ST
SITE PLAN…………………………………………………….….11
Figure 3.2 2ND
SITE PLAN………………………………………………………..11
Figure 3.3 PLINTHBEAM…………………………………………………………15
Figure 3.4 ELECTRICALPIPE IN SLAB………………………………………..17
Figure 4.1 P.C.C WORK………………………………………………………….19
Figure 4.2 FOUNDATIONCENTER LINE WORK ………………………….....21
Figure 4.3 P.C.C LAVEL …………………………………………………………24
Figure 5.1 FOUNDATIONDETAILS ……………………………………………27
Figure 5.2/5.3 FOOTING TYPE ………………………………………………...30
Figure 5.4 FOUNDATIONWORK DETAILS.......................................….......31
Figure 5.5 RUBBLE FOUNDATION……………………………………………32
Figure 5.6 FOOTING LEVEL FILLED………………………………………….33
Figure 6.1 PLINTH BEAM DETAIL PLAN……………………………………..37
Figure 7.1 DETAI OF COLUMN ………………………………………………..38
Figure 7.2 COLUMN STRUCTURE ……………………………………………39
Figure 7.3 COLUMN …..................................................................................40
Figure 7.4 ECCENTRICALLYLOADED COLUMN ………………………….41
Figure 7.5 SPIRAL COLUMN …………………………………………………..42

Figure 7.6 STEEL COLUMN BASE ……………………………………………45
Figure 7.7 BRACE AND UNBRACED COLUMN …………………………….46
Figure 7.8 GREEK AND ROMAN COLUMN …………….……………………47
Figure 8.1 BEAM …………………………………………….…………………..48
Figure 8.2 DESIGNOF BEAM STRUCTURE ………....................................50
Figure 8.3 BEAM DESIGN………………………….…………………………..51
Figure 9.1/9.2 SLAB SCHEDULE …………………………………………..52/53
Figure 9.3/9.4/9.5 SLAB FORMATION…………….………………………54/55
Figure 9.5 SLAB WORK GOKULDHAM……………………………..….…56/57
Figure 9.6/9.7 ONE AND TWO WAYSLAB…………………………………...61
Figure 9.8 SLAB DESIGN……………………………………………………....62
Figure 10.1 STAIRCASE COMPONTSN…………………………………......63
Figure 10.2 STAIRCASE STEEL WORK…………………………………......65
Figure 10.3 GENERAL STAIRCASES ………...…....................................68/70
Figure 11.1 POWERWALTSYMBOLS ………………………..………….….71
Figure 11.2/11.3 ELECTRIC PLANLAYOUT ……………………………..74/75
Figure 11.4/11.5 ELECTRIC LEGEND …………………………………….76/77
Figure 12.1 ELEVATIONDRW …….……………………………………….….78
Figure 12.2 ELEVATIONDESIGNIN SITE …………………………….…….79
Figure 12.3/12.4 SIDE ELEVATIONVIEW ………………………………..80/81

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1) INTRODUCTION
DESIGN
 The Structure Which Is Not Constructed Or Built For That We Have To Plane A
Drawing Which Is Called Design.
 What Is Concrete?
 Concrete Is A Construction Material Composed Of Cement, Fine Aggregates
(Sand) And Coarse Aggregates Mixed With Water Which Hardens With Time.
 Four Components We Have To Design In This Class,
(1) Beam
(2) Column
(3) Slab
(4) Column Footing
(5) Staircase
 In R.C.C Structure One Part Is Taking Compression And Another Part Is Taking
Tension ( Shown In Fig 1.1)
(1) Concrete Is Taking Compression
(2) Steel Bars Is Taking Tension
Steps In Construction of Residential Building
Construction of residential building required following paper work before the start of
actual construction. These steps are;
1. Preparation of drawings as per requirements of consumers.
2. Estimation of material cost, labor cost & contingencies.
3. Approval of drawings & estimates from Client.
4. Approval of drawings from City Development Authority. It is most important
because residential building drawings should meet the authority defined rules.
5. Start of construction work either through contractor or labor hired on daily basis.
6. Marking of plot boundaries.
7. Cleaning of plot.
8. Preparation of site layout as per drawing.

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 After the completion of documentation work, the actual construction on plot
begins. Following are the steps;
 EARTH WORK
Generally excavation is carried out for the construction of wall foundations.
Excavation should be carried out as per the drawings defined lengths & widths. After
excavation, layout the foundation and backfill the remaining excavated area around
foundation with soil.
Floor levels of residential buildings are higher than the natural ground level.
Fill the area with soil up to floor levels and compact the soil. Now earth work of
residential building is finished.
 CONCRETE WORK IN FOUNDATION
It is very necessary to check the levels of foundation before concrete work.
There are patches where excavated depth slightly exceeds and vice versa. Level the
foundation base to same level. Now pour the concrete as per drawing specs. Generally
concrete of ratio 1:4:8 is used for foundation. Sometimes it is even 1:5:10 or 1:6:20.
CONCRETE FOUNDATION ( Fig 1.1 )

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o Here 1:4:8 means
o 1 part cement per cubic
o 4 parts of sand per cubic
o 8 parts of coarse aggregates
o Depth of foundation varies from 9” to 18” and normally for most of the cases it is
considered as 12’’ depth. Keep foundation width equals to its depth.
 DAMP PROOF COARSE (D.P.C)
To protect walls from moisture, a layer of damp proof coarse material is laid
down at floor level. Thickness of this concrete layer is 0f 1 inch. Material of damp proof
coarse layer consists of concrete ratio 1:1.5:3 with a mixture of water proof material
1kg/bag.
 MASONRY WORK
Masonry work is carried out with cement mortar. Cement mortar is a mixture
of cement & sand. Ratio of cement mortar varies from 1:4 to 1:6. Here (1:6) mean, 1
part cement and 6 parts of sand. Dampen about 25 bricks with a hose pipe and clean
away all loose dirt from the top of footing and moisten about a meter of surface at one
end of the foundation with the hose pipe. Throw a mortar line just behind the threaded
level line and lay bricks on the mortar bed.
MASONRY WORK (Fig 1.2)

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 LINTEL
Masonry work of buildings is carried out in one go till roof. Openings for windows &
doors are left during masonry works. Reinforced cement concrete beams are laid down
on the top of openings. So, those loads of structure above openings not directly come
on to the door frames.
 ROOFING
Roof slab of building is poured after completion of masonry works. Now a days, roofing
is of reinforced cement concrete slab. Slab thickness & reinforcement details should be
according to approved drawings.
 PLASTERING & POINTING
Form work is removed after 14 days of slab pouring. Now plaster work begins. Mortar
for plaster work is generally of 1:3 or 1:4 is used. Thickness of plaster layer should not
be more than 0.75inch. Cure the surface about 7 days. So that, plaster gain proper
strength. Generally, internal walls of buildings are covered with plastered layer and
external walls with pointing. It is better plaster the external walls rather than pointing.
PLASTERING WORK (Fig 1.3)

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 DOORS & WINDOWS
Traditionally, doors and windows of woods are used. But, steel & aluminum is also not a
bad choice. In case of wooden doors & windows, frames are fixed in walls during
masonry work. Panels are then fixed with hinges after plaster work. Steel and aluminum
doors are fixed after completion of paint work.
 SERVICES
Services are very important for every single house. Different types of services are
provided during construction. These are Electricity supply, gas supply, water supply,
sanitary etc. Conduits for electric supply are fixed in walls before plastering. Similarly
water supply and sanitary lines are also laid before pouring of building floor. Note that
gas lines are not fixed in walls or slabs. Gas line remains open in air.
 WHY IS CONCRETE COVER IMPORTANT? (SHOWN IN FIG 1.5)
 It protects reinforcement bars from bad effect of weather.
 Concrete cover acts as a thermal insulation of reinforcement bars to protect it
from fire.
 It provides enough embedding to reinforcement bars to enable them to be
stressed without slipping.
 Protect the reinforcement from this phenomenon called corrosion.
 ASPECT: FOR SLAB
 A large span slab has a deflection at the middle portion.
 So, we applied some efficient columns and beams which is provide a better
strength and also it decrease the deflection of a slab.
 We have to provide reinforcement for beams and column at centre and side.
 ASPECT:FOR COLUMN (SHOWN IN FIG 1.6)
 We have to provide a TIE- BAR due to the Column expansion.
 If we don’t provide TIE-BAR the columns try to expand towards outer side.
 INDIAN STANDARD CODES:
(1) IS 456:2000
(2) IS 875 (PART -1)1987
(3) IS 875 (PART -2)1987
(4) IS 875 (PART -3)1987
(5) IS 875 (PART -4)1987

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(6) IS 875 (PART -5)1987
(7) IS 1893(PART-1):2000
 TYPES OF LOADS:
(1) DEAD LOAD [DL]
 The dead load includes loads that are relatively constant over time, including
the weight of the structure itself, and immovable fixtures such as
walls, plaster or carpet.
 The roof is also a dead load.
 Dead loads are also known as permanent or static loads.
 Building materials are not dead loads until constructed in permanent position.
(2) LIVE LOAD [LL]
 Live loads, or imposed loads, are temporary, of short duration, or a moving load.
o These dynamic loads may involve considerations such as impact, momentum,
vibration, slosh dynamics of fluids and material fatigue.
o Roof and floor live loads are produced during maintenance by workers,
equipment and materials, and during the life of the structure by movable objects,
such as planters and people.
o Bridge live loads are produced by vehicles traveling over the deck of the bridge.
(3) WIND LOAD [WL]
o The term ‘Wind Load’ is used to refer to any pressures or forces that the wind
exerts on a building or structure
(4) EARTHQUAKE LOAD [EL]
 Earthquake load takes place due to the inertia force produced in the building
because of seismic excitations. Inertia force is varies with the mass.
 The higher mass of the structure will imply that the earthquake loading will also
be high.
 LIVE LOAD IS THE ONE FOR WHICH WE ARE GOING TO DESIGN.

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CONCRETE COVER ( Fig 1.4)
ASPECT: FOR COLUMN ( Fig 1.5)
RCC STRUCTURE ( Fig 1.6 )

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2) EARTHQUAKE DESIGN OF BUILDING
Earthquake is one of the most destructive forces of nature. Structures can suffer severe
damage when an earthquake strikes. That's why; seismic loadings must be taken into
account when designing structures, especially skyscrapers.
Earthquake-resistant structure, Building designed to prevent total collapse, preserve
life, and minimize damage in case of an earthquake or tremor. Earthquakes exert lateral
as well as vertical forces, and a structure’s response to their random, often sudden
motions is a complex task that is just beginning to be understood. Earthquake-resistant
structures absorb and dissipate seismically induced motion through a combination of
means: damping decreases the amplitude of oscillations of a vibrating structure, while
ductile materials (e.g., steel) can withstand considerable inelastic deformation.
If a skyscraper has too flexible a structure, then tremendous swaying in its upper floors
can develop during an earthquake. Care must be taken to provide built-in tolerance for
some structural damage, resist lateral loading through stiffeners (diagonal sway
bracing), and allow areas of the building to move somewhat independently.
Generally excavation is carried out for the construction of wall foundations. Excavation
should be carried out as per the drawings defined lengths & widths. After excavation,
layout the foundation and backfill the remaining excavated area around foundation with
soil. Floor levels of residential buildings are higher than the natural ground level. Fill the
area with soil up to floor levels and compact the soil. Now earth work of residential
building is finished.
EARTHQUAKE DESIGN OF STRUCTURE (FIG 2.1)

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3) Residential Building construction Details Plan
Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local
building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the
area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus
timber).
1ST SITE CENTRE LINE PLAN (Fig 3.1)
2ND SITE PLAN (FIG 3.2)

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The building construction process is explained in detail below:
Following are the steps involved in Building Construction Process from Start to
Finish:
I) Pre-Construction Steps:
1. To Acquire Land or Plot.
2. To Seek Technical Help.
3. Prepare Estimation and Budgets.
4. Permission from Authorities.
5. Approach a Builder.
6. Superstructure – Column.
II) During Building Construction Steps:
1. Site Preparation or Leveling work.
2. Excavation and PPC.
3. Foundation.
4. Plinth Beam or Slab.
5. Superstructure – Column
6. Brick Masonry Work.
7. The Lintel Over Door Window Gaps.
8. Floor Slab or Roof Structure.
9. Door Window Framing and Fixations.
10.Electrical and Plumbing.
11.Exterior Finishing.
12.Terrace and Roof Finishing.

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13.Internal Finishes.
14.Woodwork and Fixture Fittings.
The following are the building construction steps.
I) Pre-Construction Steps (Phase – I):
1) To Acquire Land or Plot:
It is the most important step in building construction. Search for the location for
the building which is best suited for building construction purposes. Be careful while
selecting land which has all the desired facilities available nearby and should be free
from all land-related issues.
It is suggested that do prior data collection before buying land or plot either by doing
research online or seek help from real estate agents or concerned persons regarding
the effective cost of the same.
2) To Seek Technical Help:
After selecting proper land for building, take the help of a professional architect
to create building designs and take his/her advice. An architect prepare plan as per
building requirement, number of flats, shops based on your requirements and budget.
Then after architect consult with a structural engineer for details of the reinforcements to
be used, how deep your foundation will be, the size of gravel to be used, pillar width,
etc.
3) Preparing Estimate and Budget:
Building construction involves a huge amount of material and budget.
After, planning and structural detailing completed these details are transferred to
the building estimator. The building estimator will estimate the material quantity, quantity
of different items of work, and prepare an abstract sheet that shows the cost of building
construction.
If financial resources are limited, we need to seek pre-approval for loans in advance or
else you may end up in a cash crunch situation.

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4) Permission from Authorities:
This is important work to do after the project is ready to be executed. For that,
we have to take permission from the local municipal body before you could go for the
construction.
Following are the list of document project required before applying for permission. This
document may differ from state to state, but some are essential for every building
construction work.
a) Land survey: Survey of the land has to be carried out with the help of authorized land
surveyor b) Soil test report of the land. c) Land documents. d) Architecture/ elevation/
sectional drawings. e) Structural report. f) Architect Certificate of undertaking on
Record and Certificate of the undertaking of Civil Engineer on Record
5) Approach a Builder:
A builder or contractor for construction must be chosen carefully because it is a
major factor for securing building construction quality and timely construction of work.
Pre investigation must be done about the builder before handing work. In
the contract document, all the work-related details must be clearly stated. The contract
document should cover layout and work details along with the payment methods, time
scales and costs. The condition of the contract should be thoroughly checked before
signing a final deal.
Building Construction Step (Phase – II):
The following are the building construction a step involves for any type of construction.
1) Site Preparation or Leveling:
The construction site must be cleaned before the work is executed. This work
involves the removal of roots of trees, debris and leveling ground area.

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2) Excavation and PCC:
The foundation of building ground is excavated with the help of excavating machines as
per the building dimension specified in drawings. In this foundation trench, a layer of
PCC (Plain cement concrete) is laid in the dug portion before placing the reinforcements
for the foundation.
3) Foundation:
The building is supported on the foundation is the lowermost part of the building that is
in contact with the soil. A building is load transferred from the superstructure to the soil
and needs to be extremely strong to handle the load. After the PCC work foundation
reinforcement work is started. The foundation bottom level must check before
concreting it. The remaining space between the foundation is filled with earth.
4) Plinth Beam and Slab:
Plinth Beam (Fig 3.3)

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After the foundation work is done ground beam formwork preparation is started and
poured with concrete. Over the plinth beam, masonry work is started. And space
between foundation and plinth beam filled with soil.
5) Superstructure – Column:
The superstructure is the portion above the plinth level of the building. The
main component of the superstructure is a column and beam. The columns are built up
to slab level and the frame for further construction is prepared.
6) Brick Masonry Work:
As column and beam framework completed masonry work is started with
different materials such as bricks, concrete blocks, fly ash bricks, etc. according
to building drawing. Masonry work is done using a cement mortar mix. It is a mixture
of cement & sand. During this carefully and as per drawing gaps are laid for doors and
windows during the masonry work.
7) The Lintel Over Door Window Gaps:
The lintel is constructed on the door and window to support the masonry
work over it. After this further masonry work is done.
8) Floor Slab or Roof Structure:
Then the formwork is started to construct slab resting on the column and
beam. Over slab formwork, slab reinforcement is placed as per slab detailed drawing.
9) Door Window Framing and Fixations:
After that door window frames are fixed at their specified position given in drawing.
10) Electrical and Plumbing:

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Electrical Pipe in Slab (Fig 3.4)
As we know that buildings are constructed with a clean finish in which
electrical and plumbing work is not visible. They are installed in the walls and slabs such
that they are concealed and not visible after the finishing work is done. The point and
pipe end left out such that later they can be finished with the electric fitting and plumbing
fixtures.

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11) Exterior Finishing:
Once this work is completed, external plastering and finishing work is
started. Waterproofing is also done to prevent rising dampness in the wall. External
cladding can also be done to enhance the elevation of the house.
12) Terrace and Roof Finishing:
On top of the slab, waterproofing is done to prevent any leakage in the
slab. Generally, terrazzo tiling is done to prevent the slab from a weathering effect.
13) Internal Finishing:
Internal walls are plaster with smooth finish and flooring is done with tiles.
Later on, the walls are painted or textured.
14) Woodwork and Fixture Fittings:
By following the above step, almost construction work is completed and
then after furniture work is started. Side by side, electrical fitting, switchboard, and
plumbing fittings are complete in the bathrooms and kitchen areas too.
The last step of building construction is interior decoration work in completing the
building construction with proper furnishing and fabric used.

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4) P.C.C.WORK
Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)- Work Procedure. Plain cement concrete is the
mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate without steel. PCC is an
important component of a building which is laid on the soil surface to avoid direct contact
of reinforcement of concrete with soil and water.
The term P.C.C. stands for plain Cement Concrete work procedure. Before
starting any R.C.C. or masonry work directly on the excavated soil, P.C.C. is done to
form a leveled surface.
P.C.C. is done on the excavated soil strata oron soling provided.
Unless specified, a volumetric mix proportion of 1:4:8 or 1:3:6 is normally used for P.C.C.
P.C.C. mixing is generally a manual process.
PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE WORK PROCEDURE (Fig 4.1)
BASIC REQUIREMENTS MATERIALS, PCC PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE WORK
PROCEDURE
The basic ingredients for P.C.C. are :
Cement
Sand
Coarse aggregates
Water

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1. CEMENT
Ordinary Portland Cement (O.P.C.) is normally used for P.C.C. It should confirm to the
specifications and tests outlined in Chapter.
2. SAND
Sand for concrete works should be clean, well-graded, hard, strong, durable, and should
meet the requirements specified.
3. COARSE AGGREGATES
The size of aggregates used for P.C.C. varies from 20mm to 25mm (3/4″ to 1″).
As the maximum size of the aggregate is more, it results in the reduction of cement
consumption.
Coarse aggregates shall be clean and free from elongated, flaky, or laminated pieces.
The coarse aggregates should be free from adhering coating, clay lumps, coal residue,
clinkers, slag, alkali, mica, organic matter, or other substances.
4 WATER
Water required in plain cement concrete is 40 – 45%
TOOLS AND MACHINERIES REQUIRED PCC PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE WORK
TOOLS
Spade, pans, buckets, mixing tray, panja, rammer, level tube, water storage drums,
curing pipe, line dori, plumb, hammer, thapi, randha/tipani, measuring boxes (Farma),
etc.
MACHINERIES
Mixers (in the rare case)
Needle vibrator (in the rare case)
De-watering pump

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P.C.C DIMENTION LINE DRAW ON SITE (FIG 4.2)

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PREPARATION FOR P.C.C. PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE WORKS
1. Check the center of the excavated pit.
2. Check the dimensions and orientation of the excavated pit (length, breadth, and
depth). Record the joint measurements.
3. Get the strata checked and approved by the consultant.
4. Clean the pit by removing all loose materials.
5. Water the excavated pit and ram it for better-compacted strata.
6. If the surface level of the pit is uneven, do the soling or plum concrete to avoid
the excess depth of P.C.C.
7. Prepare the shuttering box of P.C.C. size and place it in position.
8. Get the required material stocked a day in advance.
9. Get the cement checked and keep it ready for P.C.C. work.
10.Keep all the tools and machinery ready by cleaning, washing, lubricating, etc.
WORK PROCEDURE FOR P.C.C. PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE IN
FOUNDATION
A. After completing the preparations mentioned in 22.4, P.C.C. should be done. It
includes batching, mixing, placing, and compacting. The procedure to be adopted
is as follows.
B. Prepare the volumetric depos of sand and metal on the mixing tray, by taking the
specified proportionate quantities. It is advisable to dump depos required for half
a bag for better & uniform mixing.
C. Mix half a bag, at a time, with proportionate depo of the aggregates.
D. Mix the dry depo thoroughly using a spade. Confirm that the cement, sand, and
metal are uniformly mixed.
E. Pour the required quantity of water in the above mixture, to maintain the water-
cement ratio and to get workable concrete.
F. Pour the concrete in place, using ghamelas (Mortar pans).
G. Use panja for spreading and leveling of concrete.
H. If the depth of the pit is more, one labour should receive the concrete in the pit
and pour the concrete in position, to avoid segregation.
I. The use of chute can also be made for placing concrete where the depth of the
excavation is more.
J. The concrete which is poured, can be compacted either by steel rammer or by a
vibrator, depending upon the depth of the P.C.C.
K. The sides of the shuttering should be tamped and finished with thapi to get a
smooth and uniform finish after deshuttering.
L. The top surface of the P.C.C. should be leveled and finished by randha

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M. or timpani to get a uniform finish.
N. CURING OF P.C.C PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE.
O. Curing of P.C.C. may be done by either pouring water with buckets or with a
curing pipe.
P. The centers of the respective columns are marked on the P.C.C. either by nailing
or by using a cement mortar.
Q. Curing should be carried out for a minimum of 14 days.
Plain cement concrete – Uses and formation method
The objective of plain cement concrete alias PCC is to arrange a firm
impermeable bed to RCC in the foundation where the soil is soft and flexible. It is
mostly applied over brick flat soling or devoid of brick flat soling.
o It is also known as Cement Concrete (CC) or Blinding Concrete.
o When, any reinforcement is not used inside the concrete, it is defined as the plain
cement concrete. It’s just a blend of concrete ingredients.
o Characteristics of Plain Cement Concrete - Given below, some vital
characteristics of plain cement concrete:
• Compressive strength: 200 to 500 kilogram/square centimeter
• Tensile strength: 50 to 100 kilogram/square centimeter
• Density: 2200 to 2500 kilogram/cubic meter
• Stability: Outstanding
o Applications of Plain Cement Concrete: PCC is mostly found in footings, grade
slabs, and concrete roads. When the underlying soil is weak and flexible, brick
flat soling is provided under PCC.
o To form PCC, the following materials are utilized -
o Cement: Normally, the Portland cement is utilized as bonding material in PCC.
o Fine Aggregate: Sand is employed as fine aggregate. The fineness modulus
(FM) of sand should remain 1.2 to 1.5. FM stands for an index number that
demonstrates the mean size of particles in sand. It is measured by carrying out
sieve analysis.
o Coarse Aggregate: Usually, the brick chips are utilized for developing PCC. It is
also possible to utilize stone chips in these conditions. The size of the coarse
aggregate remains 20mm downgrade.
o Water: Pure drinkable water should be provided in PCC.
o How to build up PPC?
o With the following methods, plain cement concrete is formed.
o The following tools are utilized for the production of PCC

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• Wooden or Steel rammer
• Mixture machine (if any)
o The Thickness of PCC: The thickness of PCC is normally 50mm over Brick Flat
Soling (BFS). If you don’t use BFS below PCC then the thickness should be
75¬mm. When the PCC is used in car parking area then the thickness should be
75mmover BFS.
P.C.C WORK (FIG 4.3)

25
o Ration of materials in PCC: The ratio of cement, sand and brick chips in
foundation or basement should be 1:3:6. But, if it is applied in the car parking
area, the ratio will be changed to 1:2:4.
o The production method for PCC: If ready-mix concrete is applied, this step
should be omitted. If PCC is produced through mixture machine then click “How
to mix concrete by mixture machine”. If the concrete is mixed manually, get help
by clicking on this link “how to mix concrete by hand”.
o Placing and Compaction of PCC:
• Ensure that brick soling/sand bed level is perfect for PCC.
• Create formwork for PCC with wooden planks according to stipulated
dimensions.
• There should be no dust and foreign materials in concreting area.
• The bed of PCC should be covered with polythene.
• Create level pillars of fresh concrete in the area at proper spacing but not in
excess of 2m c/c both ways.
• Set the concrete softly from one side. Apply the mixed concrete within 45
minutes once the water is added.
• For compaction and finishing of PCC, wooden rammer should be used.
• The surface of PCC should be rough to combine future work prior to
solidification of the concrete.
o Curing of PCC: After PCC is placed for 24 hours, wet the concrete surface with
water. Alternatively moist gunny bags can be used to cover the surface for
minimum seven days.
DO’S AND DONT’S OF PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE P.C.C. WORKS
DO’S
1. Check and get the strata approved by the Structural Consultant before P.C.C.
2. P.C.C. shuttering should be of the exact size and thickness.
3. Dry depth should be uniformly mixed before adding water to it.
4. Water should be mixed with a bucket, in a measured quantity, as per W/C ratio.
5. Use the chute or additional labor to pour the concrete where the depth is more.

26
6. Remove any loose material from the sides of the pit, so that no soil or other
material will collapse in the pit during concreting.
7. If the water table is high, de-watering should be carried out simultaneously during
concreting.
8. Compact and level the concrete properly.
9. Maintain the levels of P.C.C.
10.Mark the center of the column, the next day.
DONT’S
1. Do not mix the depo on bare land.
2. Do not mix the water in depo by means of a pipe.
3. Do not allow the P.C.C. without formwork.
4. Do not pour concrete without leveling and compacting.
5. Do not pour concrete in the pit from a height of more than 1.5m.
6. Do not allow extra cement mortar on top of P.C.C. for smooth finishing.
P.C.C WORK VIDEO LINK:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wjSUoKiT3xI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sIvrXO7Ff38
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0JBYAzknxI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqwXoLRxXB4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdDqt-WvkdE

27
5) Foundation work
In my internship practice, I have practiced the main shallow foundation
types, isolated footings. A foundation is part of a structure which is in direct contact with
the ground to which the loads are transmitted. Since foundation is constructed bellow
the floor finished level, it is included as one part of the sub structures of the building.
Foundations are normally placed below the ground level. The soil or rock surface on
which a building rests is called the foundation bed.
FOUNDATION DETAILS (FIG 5.1)

28
A foundation is a lower portion of building structure that transfers its gravity
loads to the earth. Foundations are generally broken into two categories: shallow
foundations and deep foundations. A tall building must have a strong foundation if it is to
stand for a long time.
To make a foundation, we normally dig a trench in the ground, digging
deeper and deeper until we come to subsoil, which is more solid than the topsoil that is
used to grow plants and crops. When the trench is deep enough, we fill it with any
strong, hard material we can find. Sometimes we pour in concrete into the trench, which
we strengthen even more by first putting long thin round pieces of steel into the trench.
When the concrete dries, the steel acts like the bones in our body to tie the foundation
together. We call this reinforced concrete.
Once the foundation has been packed down tightly, or dried hard, we can
begin to build the building superstructure.
Foundations have the following purposes:
o To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring
intensity of loading with the safe bearing capacity of the soil lying underneath.
o To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal
settlement.
o To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting materials.
o To secure a level and firm bed for building operation.
o To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.
o To ensure safety against undermining and protection against soil movements.
o To provide even surface for the structure to rest etc.
In engineering, a foundation is the element of a structure which
connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the
ground. Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep.
Foundation engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics (Geotechnical engineering) in the design of foundation elements of
structures. Procedure for construction of foundation starts with a decision on its
depth, width, and marking layout for excavation and centerline of foundation.
Foundation is the part of the structure below the plinth level in direct contact of
soil and transmits the load of superstructure to the ground.
o Following are different types of foundations used in construction:
 Shallow foundation
 Individual footing or isolated footing
 Combined footing. Strip foundation

29
 Raft or mat foundation
 Deep Foundation
 Pile foundation
 Drilled Shafts or caissons.
Isolated Footing
Isolated footings are footings which carry a load from a single
column. Reinforcement is provided in the form of steel bars and is placed in both
directions. Under normal conditions, square & rectangular footings are
economical for supporting columns & wall. Figure is shown in figure 2.4.
Isolated footing 3 types of footings.
1st) Pad Footing
2ND) Stepped Footing
3rd) Sloped Footing
Isolated footings (also known as Pad or Spread footings) are
commonly used for shallow foundations in order to carry and spread
concentrated loads, caused for example by columns or pillars. Isolated footings
can consist either of reinforced or non-reinforced material. For the non-reinforced
footing however, the height of the footing has to be bigger in order to provide the
necessary spreading of load.
Isolated footings should only be used when it is absolutely certain, that
no varying settlements will occur under the entire building. Spread footings are
unsuitable for the bearing of widespread loads. In this case, either strip
(continuous) footings or mat footings are used.
 FOUNDATION WORK LINK
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qt9V7mphskQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KwTkSAdkPeg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHCKhTG_DRA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d3ku7mioXJk

30
FOOTING TYPES (FIG 5.2)
SLOPED FOOTING (FIG.5.3)

31
FOUNDATION DETAILS OF SITE (FIG 5.4)

32
RUBBLE (BOLDER) SOLING PROCEDURE FOR THE FOUNDATION AND
FOOTING.
Soling is the process of hand packing rubble stones one adjacent to another,
to provide a stable base to the foundation and footing, before concreting work.
Rubble or boulder soling is done to enhance the bearing capacity of the soil,
where hard strata are not available. The stones used for the soling purpose are basalt,
black trap, granite, or locally available hard stones, that fit under the soling specification.
RUBBLE FOOTING (FIG 5.5)
Now, let us go through the different steps that should be followed for the rubble soling
work.
1. SURFACE CLEANLING :
The base over which the soling should be laid is cleared of all the loose
materials, formworks, props, etc. If you find any leftover building raw materials over the
base surface, that should be shifted beforehand to clear the area.

33
FOOTING LEVEL SURFACE FILLED (FIG 5.6)
2. LEVELLING AND COMPACTION :
You have to ensure that the construction soil filled in the plinth or excavated
footing pit is properly compacted and leveled, using rammers and compactors to
provide an even surface.
3. LAYING STONES:
Usually, the thickness of the rubble soling varies from 150mm ( 6 inches) to
250mm. (10 inches). The stones selected for the soling should be of uniform size with a
maximum variation of ± 20mm. It should be elongated in shape with a broader base.
While laying them, the stones should be packed with minimum voids between
the two. The elongated side is kept in the upright vertical position, with a broader base
at the bottom.

34
First, you have to place the rubble soling, at all the four corners and at the
center of the working area with the specified thickness. You have to check their top-
level using a water tube or any other leveling instruments. By using lineout strings and
tying or holding them from one to another, you can cover the leftover soling area easily,
by maintaining the needed thickness and required top level.
4. VOID FILLING:
After packing the stones, any voids left in between the soling should be filled
with stone chips by inserting them in the gaps. Spreading the stone chips over the
rubble soling using gamelan, without packing the voids should be avoided, as it does
not slide in between the gaps.
5. HAMMERING:
After filling the voids, any protrusions of the stones should be knocked off by
using hammers to maintain a leveled top surface. If you find some stones that are hard
to break, then water the ground beneath the soling and press them inside the
subsurface.
6. COMPACTION:
Use mechanical compactors or manual rammers to compact the soling. First,
you have to spray sufficient water all over and then compaction work has to be carried
out starting from one end and finishing at the other end, by covering all the surface
area.
RUBBLE FOUNDATION VIDEO LINK:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eNN7T4fBQo4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ze1Nnm4oVMQ

35
6) PLINTH BEAM
The plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam built between the wall and
its foundation. The plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or cracking of the
foundation cracks in the wall above when the foundation suffers from laying. Plinth
beams evenly distribute the load from the wall over the foundation.
In a skeletal system, which is the other name for a framed structure, the plinth
beam is the first beam to be built after the foundation. The ground floor finish level is
maintained above ground level; the empty space and the void are filled with compacted
soil, in order to obtain a stable surface for the floor to be built.
The construction of the plinth board beam above the natural soil is another application of
this type of beam.
 Concrete Strength Suitable for Construction of Plinth Beam
The concrete strength of the plinth board beam must not be less than 20MPa.
If the concrete is mixed manually, it will be necessary to add an additional 20% of
cement to the mixture.
 Minimum Dimension of Plinth Beam
The minimum depth of the plinth beam is 20 cm, while its width must match the width of
the final stroke of the foundation.
 Formwork for Plinth Beam
The formwork used for the construction of plinth beams must be installed and
fastened properly before laying the concrete. The concrete needs to be compacted
enough to avoid steel bars against aggressive elements.
 Steel Bars Used for Plinth Beam
It is recommended to provide two bars with a minimum diameter of 14 mm at
the bottom of the beam. Likewise, two bars with a diameter of 16 mm must be provided
at the top of the plinth beam.

36
The reinforcement bars must be protected by a 25 mm concrete cover. With regard to
the stirrups, the diameter of the stirrup must be at least 6 mm, and the spacing of 15 cm
must be sufficient.
 Plinth Protection
Plinth protection reduces direct water from entering into the soil close to the plinth wall.
In other words, the area surrounding the building is usually known as plinth protection.
Plinth protection usually is done by pouring an approximate 75 – 100 mm layer of plain
cement concrete along the edge of the building.
The protection of the plinth is necessary to prevent/reduce the infiltration of water in
the soil that reaches the plinth wall and reaches the floor level by capillary action.
The plinth beam protection reduces the direct entry of water into the ground near the
plinth board wall.
In technical terms, the area around the building is generally known as plinth protection.
The plinth protection is usually done by pouring a layer of approximately 100 mm of
common cement concrete along the edge of the building.
In most basic buildings, the protection of the plinth is usually left exposed for viewing.
However, in the case of well-finished buildings, the plinth beam protection can be
covered with a layer of sidewalk blocks, gravel, or even the surrounding lawn.
The protection of the plinth is necessary to prevent/reduce the infiltration of water in the
soil that reaches the plinth wall and reaches the floor level by capillary action.
The plinth board protection reduces the direct entry of water into the ground near the
plinth board wall. In other words, the area around the building is generally known as
plinth protection.
 Purpose of Plinth Protection
The protection of the plinth is necessary to prevent/reduce the infiltration of water
in the soil that reaches the plinth wall and reaches the floor level by capillary action.
The plinth board protection reduces the direct entry of water into the ground near the
plinth beam wall.
The plinth beam in a frame structure is intended to join all columns, thereby reducing
the effective length and thus reducing the slenderness of the columns.

37
BEAM DETAILS (FIG 6.1)
The plinth distributes that weight outwards, dispersing it more evenly through
the ground or floor. That's the most important function of a plinth; however, it can also
be used to physically separate structures like houses from the ground. This is especially
important if the ground is not solid, stable, or dry.
PLINTH BEAM VIDEOS LINK :
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ClapiwiwlYI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=raeXjtLPS7k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7TE6ODlwGk

38
7) DESIGN OF COLUMN
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural
element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other
structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member.
DETAILS OF COLUMN ON SITE (FIG 7.1)

39
Columns are defined as vertical load-bearing members supporting axial compressive
loads chiefly. This structural member is used to transmit the load of the structure to the
foundation. In reinforced concrete buildings beams, floors, and columns are cast
monolithically. The bending action in the column may produce tensile forces over a part
of cross-section. Still, columns are called compression members because compressive
forces dominate their behavior.
COLUMN (FIG 7.2)
Concrete columns can be roughly divided into three categories-
Pedestals, Short reinforced columns, and long reinforced columns. Besides in modern
days columns can be classified in different categories on a different basis.
 Types of Columns
Columns can be of many types based on loading, length, column ties, frame
bracing, etc. The types of columns used in construction are as stated below:

40
A. Based on Loading
1. Axially Loaded Columns
2. Eccentrically Loaded Columns: Uniaxial
3. Eccentrically Loaded Columns: Biaxial
B. Based on Column Ties
1. Tied Columns
2. Spiral Columns
C. Based on Slenderness Ratio
1. Short Compression Blocks or pedestals
2. Short Reinforced Columns
3. Long Reinforced Columns
D. Based on Shape of Cross Section
1. Geo-matric shaped –Rectangular, Round, Octagonal, Square, etc.
2. L-shaped
3. T-shaped
4. V-shaped
E. Based on Construction Materials
1. Reinforced Concrete Column
2. Composite Column
3. Steel, Timber, Brick Column
F. Based on Frame Bracing
1. Braced Column
2. Unbraced Column
G. Other Types
1. Prestressed Concrete Column
2. Greek And Roman Column
COLUMN (FIG 7.3)

41
 Classification of Column Based On Loading
o Axially Loaded Column
If the compressive vertical loads act along the centroidal axis of the column, it is termed
as an axially loaded column. This type of column without bending is not found practically
so much.
o Eccentrically Loaded Column: Uniaxial
When the loads are acting at a distance ‘e’ from the centroid of the column cross-
section, the column is termed as an eccentrically loaded column. In an uniaxial
eccentrically loaded column this distance ‘e’ could be along x-axis or y-axis. These
eccentric loads cause moments along the x-axis or y-axis.
o Eccentrically Loaded Column: Biaxial
In this type of column, loads are applied at any point of cross-section but not in axes.
Loads cause moments about both the x- and y-axes simultaneously.
Eccentrically Loaded Column (FIG 7.4)
Axially loaded column, uniaxial eccentric column and biaxial eccentric column.

42
o Classification of Column Based On Column Ties
 Tied Column
In the tied column, the longitudinal bars are tied together with smaller bars. These
smaller bars are spaced at uniform intervals up the column. Steel ties in column confine
the main longitudinal bars. Over 95 percent of all columns in buildings in non-seismic
regions are tied columns.
 Spiral Column
Spiral columns contain spirals to hold the main longitudinal reinforcement. Spiral is
spring type reinforcement. The main bars are placed in a circle and ties are replaced by
spirals. Spiral columns are used when high strength and/or high ductility are required.
Because the spiral acts to resist the lateral expansion of the column bars under high
axial loads. The main bars are placed in a circle and ties are replaced by spirals. Spiral
columns are used more extensively in seismic regions.
SPIRAL COLUMN (FIG 7.5)

43
Classification of Column Based On Slenderness
 Short Compression Block or Pedestals
A pedestal is a compression member having a height less than three times its least
lateral dimension. Pedestals need not be reinforced and may be designed with plain
concrete.
 Short Reinforced Column
The slenderness ratio (ratio of effective length to the least lateral dimension) is less than
12 in the short reinforced column. Short columns fail due to crushing or yielding of the
steel bars. The loads that a short column may support depend on the dimension of
cross-section and the strength of materials. Short columns show a little flexibility.
 Long Reinforced Column
The slenderness ratio exceeds 12 in long columns. This type of column is also known
as the slender column. As the slenderness increases, bending deformation increases.
Long column fails due to buckling effect which reduces load-bearing capacity.
Classification of Column Based On Shape of Cross Section
 Geo-metric Shaped
Column sections can be rectangular, round, square, octagonal, hexagonal as per
requirements. Generally tied columns may be square and rectangular while spiral
columns are circular. Circular columns are used when higher elevation is needed like in
piles, bridges pillars. Circular columns provide a smooth and aesthetic finish. On the
other hand, rectangular columns are found in residential and official buildings. They are
easy and less costly to cast.
 L-Shaped
This type of column is unpopular. The L-shaped column can be used as a corner
column in a framed structure. This design of the column can be a good replacement to
resist both axial compression and biaxial bending of corners.

44
 V-Shaped
In the trapezoidal structure, this type of column can be used. V-shaped columns need
more materials comparatively.
 T-Shaped
T-shaped columns may be used in bridge pillars depending on design requirements.
Classification of Column Based on Construction Materials
 Reinforced Concrete Column
Reinforced concrete columns are the most widely used columns for framed structure.
This type of column is composed of concrete as a matrix. The steel frame is embedded
in concrete. Concrete carries the compressive load and reinforcement resists tensile
load. The reinforcing materials can be made of steel, polymers, or alternate composite
materials. For a strong, ductile, and durable construction the reinforcement needs to
have some properties such as thermal compatibility, high resistance to tensile stress,
good bond to concrete, anti-corrosive, etc.
 Composite Column
Composite columns are constructed using various combinations of structural steel and
concrete. The interactive and integral behavior of concrete and the structural steel
elements makes the composite column a very stiff, more ductile, cost-effective, and
consequently a structurally efficient member in building and bridge construction. This
type of column has great fire and corrosion resistance also.
 Steel, Timber, Brick Column
Steel columns are made of steel entirely. These columns are used in aircraft
manufacturing warehouses, indoor shipyards, etc.

45
STEEL COLUMN BASE (FIG 7.6)
Timber columns are made of wood timber. They provide an aesthetic appearance
creating a feeling of space and openness. Timber columns are designed for house
builders, reception areas, and refurbishment properties.
Brick columns are found in masonry structures. They can be reinforced with concrete to
increase strength or can be unreinforced. Brick columns can be a round-shaped,
rectangle, or square, or elliptical in cross-section.
Classification of Column Based on Frame Bracing
 Braced Column
Columns may be part of a frame that is braced or unbraced against
sideways. Lateral stability to a structure as a whole is provided by bracing. Bracing can
be obtained by using shear walls or bracings in the building frame. In braced frames
relative transverse displacement of upper and lower ends of a column is prevented.
Braced columns prevent gravity loads and shear walls prevent lateral loads and wind
loads.
 Unbraced Column
Unbraced columns resist both gravity load and lateral load. As a result, the load
capacity of the column reduces.

46
BRACE AND UNBRACED COLUMN (FIG 7.7)
Some Other Types Of Column
 Prestressed Concrete Column
Prestressed columns can be used as an extension of the reinforced
concrete columns when bending moments due to wind and earthwork forces, eccentric
loads, or frame action are applied to columns. Prestressing transforms a cracked
section into a non-cracked one and resists significant bending. This type can be found
useful when the column is a high slender column and precast column.
 Greek and Roman Column
Classical Greek and Roman architecture made use of four major styles of columns for
their buildings and temples. These four types of columns were Doric, Ionic, Corinthian,
and Tuscan. These columns look straight and uniform from a distance. But up close,
they might actually tilt a bit, or lean left or right.

47
Greek and Roman Column (FIG 7.8)
VIDEOS LINK OF COLUMN WORK:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay8sNeYJtS8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I6zWavwJfrg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9LI6x0GY5Q&t=188s

48
8) DESIGN OF BEAM
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's
axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result
in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on
the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beams, that in
turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are
characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium
conditions, length, and their material.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements,
but any structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft components,
machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures
that are designed to carry lateral loads are analyzed in a similar fashion.
BEAM (FIG 8.1)

49
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF BEAM –
Under the design basis, A structure is made from different kind of beams, few of
them are here:
 CANTILEVER BEAM- In the structural design of the residential building,
commercial building and the one end of a cantilever beam is free from any support
whereas the other end remains fixed. Generally, we design the cantilever beams to
support the covering or sunshade of a bigger span of the building. They are used for
the maximum shear forces & moments developed at the support section, which is
usually a reinforced concrete column.
 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM- It is the type of beam which is loose to rotate
because it’s one end is roller support, whereas the other end has pinned support.
So it is supported from both the ends, and it is the most basic type of beam. You
can quickly identify the simply supported beam in 2 to 3 storey building design
plans or multi-storey building design plans.
 CONTINUOUS BEAM – The continuous beams usually have two or more than two
supports, it has one end fixed, and the other end goes continue. The use of these
continuous beams is mostly in multi-storied buildings of several bays in right-angle
direction. You can easily calculate the dimension of the beam to beam design
formula.
 OVERHANGING BEAM – It is also a type of beam used in the structural design of
the residential building, the commercial building has two conditions. If one end of
the beam expands beyond the support, then it is called overhanging beam, and if
both ends of the beam expand beyond the support, then the beam is called a
double overhanging beam.
 FIXED BEAM- Fixed-beam has strong support from both the ends due to which it
opposes any rotation, on either column or wall.
 Lintel Beam- It is a type of beam usually used during constructions for openings
like windows or door. It also acts as a guard for windows and doors during rain.
 COMPOSITE BEAM- A composite beam is a structural element provided
horizontally or a horizontal structural element, with a combination of concrete and
steel section, is called a composite beam or an encased beam.

50
 L BEAM- Beams are cast uniformly on one side of the slabs of the rib are called L-
Beams. At the support section, hogging and tensional bending moments are
maximum.
DESIGN OF BEAM STRUCTURE (FIG 8.2)
The design of concrete beam includes the estimation of cross section dimension
and reinforcement area to resist applied loads. There are two approaches for the design
of beams. Firstly, begin the design by selecting depth and width of the beam then
compute reinforcement area.
STANDARD SIZE OF BEAM FOR RESIDAINTAL BUILDING: In a residential building is
9 ʺ × 12 ʺ or 225 mm × 300 mm according to the (IS codes). The minimum size of the
RCC beam should not be less than the 9 ʺ× 9 ʺ or 225mm × 225mm with the addition of
slab thickness which is 125mm.

51
BEAM DESIGN (FIG 8.3)
DESIGN OF BEAM VIDEO LINK:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WMJtPIByIe4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YKFPv6mBYH0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-5SqLYCFFJQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m7ibaDwife8

52
9) DESIGN OF SLAB
 A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used to create flat horizontal
surfaces such as floors, roof decks and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches thick
and supported by beams, columns, walls, or the ground.
 Concrete slabs can be prefabricated off-site and lowered into place or may be
poured in-situ using formwork. If reinforcement is required, slabs can be pre-stressed or
the concrete can be poured over rebar positioned within the formwork
SLAB LEVEL SCHEDULE (FIG 9.1)

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Reinforced Cement Concrete Slab
 A Reinforced Concrete Slab is the one of the most important component in a
building. It is a structural element of modern buildings. Slabs are supported
on Columns and Beams.
 RCC Slabs whose thickness ranges from 10 to 50 centimeters are most often used
for the construction of floors and ceilings.
 Thin concrete slabs are also used for exterior paving purpose.
 In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on
foundations or directly on the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a
building.
 In high rises buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung
between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level.
 While making structural drawings of the reinforced concrete slab, the slabs are
abbreviated to “r.c. Slab” or simply “r.c.”.
STRUCTURE OF SLAB (FIG 9.2)

54
Design of various types of slabs and their reinforcement
 For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-
weight ratio. In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is
modulated:
 Corrugated usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This
improves strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The
corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side.
 A ribbed slab giving considerable extra strength on one direction.
 A waffle slab giving added strength in both directions.
 Reinforcement Design
 A one way slab has structural strength in shortest direction.
 A two way slab has structural strength in two directions.
 These slabs could be cantilevered or Simply Supported Slabs.
SLAB FORMATION (FIG 9.3)
Construction
 A concrete slab can be cast in two ways: It could either be prefabricated or cast in
situ.
 Prefabricated concrete slabs are cast in a factory and then transported to the site
ready to be lowered into place between steel or concrete beams.

55
 They may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed.
Care should be taken to see that the supporting structure is built to the correct
dimensions to avoid trouble with the fitting of slabs over the supporting structure.
 In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork. Formwork is a
box-like setup in which concrete is poured for the construction of slabs.
 For reinforced concrete slabs, reinforcing steel bars are placed within the formwork
and then the concrete is poured.
 Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used to hold the reinforcing steel bars
away from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it
completely envelops the reinforcement.
 Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist
only of sidewalls pushed into the ground whereas for a suspended slab, the form-
work is shaped like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the
concrete sets.
SLAB WITH ELECTRIC LINE (FIG9.4)

56
SLABWORK IN GOKULDHAM RESIDANCY (FIG 9.5)

57
Materials used for the formwork
 The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel.
On commercial building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they
save labour.
 On low-budget sites, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden
planks are very common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or
left there permanently.
 In some cases formwork is not necessary – for instance, a ground slab surrounded
by brick or block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and
hardcore acts as the base.
 Span – Effective Depth Ratios
 Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the ceiling, floor finishes and
other architectural details. To avoid this, limits are set on the span-depth ratios.
 These limits are exactly the same as those for beams. As a slab is usually a slender
member the restriction on the span-depth ratio becomes more important and this
can often control the depth of slab required in terms of the span – effective depth
ratio is given by
 Minimum effective depth = span/(basic ratio x modification factor)
 The modification factor is based on the area of tension steel in the shorter span
when a slab is singly reinforced at midspan, the modification factors for the areas of
tensions and compression steel are as given in the figure 2 and 4 of the code.
 Solid Slab spanning in two directions
 When a slab is supported on all four of its sides, it effectively spans in both
directions, and it is sometimes more economical to design the slab on this basis.
The moment of bending in each direction will depend on the ratio of the two spans
and the conditions of restraint at each support.
 If the slab is square and the restraint is similar along the four sides, then the load
will span equally in both directions. If the slab is rectangular, then more than one-
half of the load will be carried in the shorter direction and lesser load will be
imposed on the longer direction.
 If one span is much longer than the other, a large portion of the load will be carried
in the shorter direction and the slab may as well be designed as spanning in only
one direction.

58
 Moments in each direction of span are generally calculated using co-efficient which
are tabulated in the code.
 The slab is reinforced with the bars in both directions parallel to the spans with the
steel for the shorter span placed farthest from the natural acis to five the greater
effective depth.
 The span-effective depths are based on the shorter span and the percentage of the
reinforcement in that direction.
SLAB FORMATION (FIG 9.5)
 Effective Span:(Clause 22.2 Is 456:2000)
 The distance between the centers of support, or the clear distance between
supports plus the effective depth of the beam or slab, the lesser value being
taken.
 Simply Supported Beam Of Slab:
 The effective span of a member that is not built integrally with its supports shall
be taken the lesser of the following two:

59
(1) Clear span + effective depth of slab or beam
(2) Centre to centre of support
 Continuous Beam Of Slab:
 If the width of the support is less than 1/12 of clear span, the effective span be as
per simply supported case.
(1)For end span with one end fixed and the other continuous
(2)For intermediate spans, the effective span shall be the clear span between
supports
 The effective span shall be the lesser of the following two:
(1)Clear span + half the effective depth
(2) Clear span + half the width of the discontinuous support
 In the case of spans with roller or rocker bearings
 The effective span shall always be the distance between the centre of bearing
 Cantilever:
 The effective length of a cantilever shall be taken as,
 Its length to the face of the support plus half the effective depth
 The length to the centre of support where it forms the end of the a continuous
beams
 Frames:
 In the analysis of a continuous frame, Centre to centre distance shall be used
 Moment And Shear Coefficient For Continuous Beams Clause 22.5 Is
456:2000:
 Substantially uniformly distributed loads over three or more spans which do not
differ by more than 15% of the longest.
 Bending Moment Coefficient:
 It is used in Handbooks and Manuals to give you a coefficient (say 0.125) which
you should multiply with the Span L and Total distributed load W to get
the moment. This is used for listing standard cases of symmetrically located
loads on single spans or on multi-span continuous beams with equal spans.
 Reinforced Concrete Solid Slab:
 One way slabs
 Two way slabs

60
 Flat slab
 Flat plates
 ONE WAY SLAB: (SHOWN IN FIG 9.4)
 One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the two opposite sides to
carry the load along one direction. The ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b)
is equal or greater than 2, considered as One way slab because this slab will
bend in one direction i.e. in the direction along its shorter span
 Due to the huge difference in lengths, the load is not transferred to the shorter
beams. Main reinforcement is provided in shorter span and distribution
reinforcement in a longer span.
 Example: Generally all the Cantilever slabs are one Way slab. Chajjas and
verandahs are a practical example of one way slab.
 TWO WAY SLAB: (SHOWN IN FIG 1.23)
 Two way slab is a slab supported by beams on all the four sides and the loads
are carried by the supports along with both directions, it is known as two way
slab. In two way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than
2.
 In two way slabs, the load will be carried in both the directions. So, the main
reinforcement is provided in both directions for two way slabs.
 Example: These types of slabs are used in constructing floors of a multi-storeyed
building.
 Concrete Cover:
 Concrete cover, in reinforced concrete, is the least distance between the surface
of embedded reinforcement and the outer surface of the concrete (ACI 130). The
concrete cover depth can be measured with a cover meter
 Nominal concrete cover should not be less than 20mm.
 Control Of Deflection:

61
 For deflection control, the structural designer should select
maximum deflection limits that are appropriate to the structure and its intended use.
The calculated deflection (or camber) must not exceed these limits.
ONE WAY SLAB (FIG 9.6) TWO WAY SLAB (FIG 9.7)
 INTERIOR PANELS FOR SHORTER SPAN:

62
SLAB DESIGN (FIG 9.8)
VIDEO LINK OF SLAB FORMATION ON SITE WORK:
https://youtu.be/jomvPzvzLpI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ditg6akoI38

63
10) DESIGN OF STAIRCASE
 Stairs are used to create a pedestrian route between different vertical levels by
dividing the height between the levels into manageable steps.
 Very generally, the word 'stairs' refers to a staircase, whereas the word 'step' refers
to the individual steps that make up the staircase.
 The main components of stairs are illustrated below:
STAIRCASE COMPONTS (FIG 10.1)
 Stairs, particularly in domestic premises, may also include guarding to one, or both
sides, in the form of a banister, that is, an assembly of uprights and a handrail.
 Stairs can be straight and can include a landing and turn, or can be curved. A
continuous series of steps between landings is called a flight.
 Curved stairs have tapered treads, and can be difficult to use. A helical stair has a
void in the middle, whereas a spiral stair has a column in the middle.
 Under some circumstances, stairs can have alternating treads, that is, the wide part
of the tread is on alternating sides on consecutive treads.
 Stairs can be constructed using a wide variety of materials, including; timber, brick,
stone, concrete, metal, glass and so on.

64
The requirements for the design of stairs are set out in the approved documents to
the building regulations:
 Approved document K - Protection from falling, collision and impact.
 Approved document M - Access to and use of buildings (only when
external stepped access also forms part of the principal entrances and
alternative accessible entrances and when they form part of the access route to
the building from the boundary of the site and car parking).
 Approved document B - Fire safety.
Min rise
(mm)
Max rise
(mm)
Min going
(mm)
Max going
(mm)
PRIVATE STAIR 150 220 220 300
UTILITY STAIR 150 190 250 400
GENERAL
ACCESS STAIR
150 170 250 400
 This gives a maximum pitch for a private stair of 42º.
 The normal relationship between the rise and the going is that 2 x the rise +
the going should be between 550 and 700 mm.
Other requirements include:
 For school buildings, the preferred rise is 150 mm and the preferred going is 280
mm. The minimum headroom should be 2 m.
 For dwellings, for external tapered stairs that are part of the buildings,
the going should be a minimum of 280 mm.
 For existing buildings, alternatives may be proposed if the
dimensional constraints do not allow these requirements to be followed.
 There are more complex requirements for stepped gangways in assembly buildings,
and there may be conflict between these requirements and sight lines in
some buildings with spectator seating.
 Buildings that are not dwellings and common areas in buildings that
contain flats should not have an open riser, should have visual contrast to
make nosing’s apparent, and nosing’s should not protrude by more than 25 mm.

65
STAIRCASE STEEL WORK (FIG 10.2)
Width Of Stair
 Buildings other than dwellings
 For stairs that form part of a means of escape, see Fire below.

66
 For other stairs, a minimum width of 1,200 mm, and 1,000 mm between handrails. If
the stairs are more than 2 m wide, then they should be divided into flights of no less
than 1,000 mm.
Dwellings
 For stairs that form part of a means of escape, see Fire below.
 Where it is necessary to have a stepped change of level within the entrance storey,
this should be a minimum width of 900 mm.
 Landings should be at least the width and length of the minimum width of the fight.
For buildings other than dwellings, each landing should have an unobstructed
length of at least 1,200 m.
 NB: In designing staircases, in particular residential work, thought must be given
to access for furniture. Spiral staircases for instance are a real problem
for bedroom furniture and windows may not have big enough openings for
alternative access.
Length Of Flight
 Stairs with more than 36 risers in consecutive flights should have at least one
change in direction between flights. For buildings other than dwellings, the
maximum number of risers between landings should be 16 for utility stairs and 14
for general access stairs. There should not be any single steps
Handrail
 Handrails should be 900 mm to 1000 mm from the pitch line or the floor. If
the stair is 1,000 mm wide, or more, a handrail should be provided at both sides. If
the stairs are more than 2 m wide, then they should be divided into flights of no less
than 1,000 mm.
 Handrails should continue, at least 300 mm beyond the top and bottom of
the stairs and should be finished in a way that reduces the risk of clothing being
caught.
Guarding Rail
 In buildings that might be used by children fewer than 5, guarding should be
designed so that a 100 mm sphere cannot pass through, it should prevent children
being held fast and should be difficult to climb.

67
Fire Exit
 There are specific and complex requirements for the fire separation
of stairs in dwellings depending on the height of the building and whether there is
a basement. There are also specific requirements for external escape stairs.
 In relation to buildings other than dwellings, there are also specific and
complex requirements in relation to the number of protected stairs, firefighting
stairs and the width of stairs.
Accessibility
 The main accessibility requirements for stairs have now been moved to Approved
Document K, however, there is still guidance in Approved Document M: Access to
and Use of Buildings in relation to external stairs, where they also form part of
the principal entrances and alternative accessible entrances and when
they form part of the access route to the building from the boundary of
the site and car parking.
Type Of Stairs
 Utility stair
 Approved document K defines a 'utility stair' as a stair used for escape,
access for maintenance, or purposes other than as the usual route for moving
between levels on a day-to-day basis.'
 General access stair
 Approved document K defines a 'general access stair' as a stair intended for
all users of a building on a day-to-day basis, as a normal route between levels.
 Private stair
 Approved document K defines a private stair as a stair intended to be used for only
one dwelling'.

68
 Protected stair
 Approved document B defines a ‘protected stair’ as a stair discharging through
a final exit to a place of safety (including any exit passageway between the foot of
the stair and the final exit) that is adequately enclosed with fire resisting
construction’.
GENERAL STAIRCASE (FIG 10.3)
 Firefighting stair
 Approved document B defines a ‘firefighting stair’ as a protected stairway that
connects to the accommodation area through only a firefighting lobby.

69
 Common stair
 Approved document B defines a ‘common stair’ as an escape stair that serves more
than one flat.
Staircase (Fig 10.4)
DESIGN OF STAIRCASE VIDEOS:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QaaKpS0q49A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E41HDSnriCA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KPP_bv_JRQc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Won0jzzbpE

70
11) DESIGN OF ELECTRIC LAYOUT
 It start from HT side to entrance of the building, after that Step-down
Transformers used to step down the voltage from HT to LT, after that N number
of distribution breaks Installed in LT Room, from there distributed to different
feeders like Raising mains , HVAC load, UPS load, other equipment loads.
 An integral part of any set of drawings for the construction of a building is the wiring
plan or layout. Several standards apply to this type of design and graphical
presentation. Symbols for the drawings (other than those used previously in this
text) are shown and explained in ANS Y32.9, “Graphical Electrical Symbols for
Architectural Plans,” Mu Std 15-3, “Electrical Wiring Symbols for Architectural and
Electrical Layout Drawings,” and in the Residential Wiring Handbook published by
the Industry Committee on Interior Wiring Design.
 The National Electrical Code (NEC), published by the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), provides
the minimum design criteria necessary to safeguard persons and property
practically from the hazards arising from the use of electricity. The Code is
voluntarily written by knowledgeable persons in all diverse groups associated with
the electrical industry, including unions, manufacturers, inspection agencies, users,
technical societies, contractors, utilities, insurance underwriters, and governmental
agencies. Many of these organizations are represented by associations or societies.
The Code is not intended as a design specification or instruction manual for
untrained personnel.
 The NEC covers electrical conductors and equipment installed within or on public
and private buildings, structures, mobile homes, recreational vehicles, industrial
substations, and other premises (yards, carnivals, parking lots, etc.). It also covers
the conductors that connect the installations to a supply of electricity and other
outside conductors. In general, the NEC does not cover installations in ship, water
craft, railroads, aircraft, automobiles, or mines, nor does it cover communication
equipment used by communication utilities or installations under the direct control of
electric utilities. The NEC is purely advisory as far as NFPA and ANSI are
concerned, but it is offered for use in law and for regulatory purposes.

71
POWER WALT SYMBOL (FIG 11.1)
1. National Electrical Code (NEC) Definitions and Contents
Because the NEC is such an important document, persons engaged in producing
electrical drawings for architectural structures must be familiar with it and with other
local codes. These persons should also be conversant with standard terminology and
equipment. For the benefit of the reader, we give some of the definitions used in the
code and a brief explanation of its contents, so that the rest of this section can be
followed more easily. However, it should be remembered that the NEC is the standard
for the minimum provisions associated with electrical installations necessary for
personnel and property safety; it is not a drawing standard.
Some of the definitions used in the NEC are a little strange compared with their
everyday use; however, they should be learned because they are peculiar and essential
to the proper use of the Code. Some of the NEC definitions that are more applicable to
the information contained in this section are as follows:

72
Accessible: As applied to wiring methods. Capable of being removed or exposed
without damaging the building structure or finish, or not permanently closed in by the
structure or finish of the building.
As applied to equipment: Admitting close approach; not guarded by locked doors,
elevation or other effective means.
Accessible, readily: (Readily accessible.) Capable of being reached quickly for
operation, renewal, or inspections, without requiring those to whom ready access is
requisite to climb over or remove obstacles or to resort to the use of portable ladders,
chairs, etc.
Amp city: The current in amperes that a conductor can carry continuously under the
conditions of use without exceeding its temperature rating.
Appliance: Utilization equipment, generally other than industrial, normally built in
standardized sizes or types, which is installed or connected as a unit to perform one or
more functions, such as clothes washing, air conditioning, food mixing, deep frying, etc.
Attachment Plug (Plug Cap): A device which, when inserted into a receptacle,
establishes connection between the conductors of the attached flexible cord and the
conductors connected permanently to the receptacle.
Branch Circuit: The circuit conductors between the final over current device protecting
the circuit and the outlet(s).
Appliance. A branch circuit supplying energy to one or more outlets to which appliances
are to be connected. Such circuits have no permanently connected lighting fixture not a
part of an appliance.
General-purpose: A branch circuit that supplies a number of outlets for lighting and
appliances.
Individual: A branch circuit that supplies only one utilization equipment.
Multi wire: A branch circuit consisting of two or more ungrounded conductors which
have a potential difference between them, and an identified grounded conductor which
has equal potential difference between it and each ungrounded conductor of the circuit
and which is connected to the neutral conductor of the system.
Building: A structure which stands alone or which is cut off from adjoining structures by
fire wall with all openings therein protected by approved fire doors.
Cabinet: An enclosure designed for either surface or flush mounting and provided with
a frame, mat, or trim in which a swinging door or doors are or may be hung.

73
Circuit Breaker: A device designed to open and close a circuit by no automatic means
and to open the circuit automatically on a predetermined over current without injury to
itself when properly applied within its rating.
Concealed: Rendered inaccessible by the structure or finish of the building. Wires in
concealed raceways are considered concealed, even though they may become
accessible by withdrawing them.
Briefly, the NEC contains standards on installation, application, construction, materials,
and equipment associated with the electrical industry. Standards are found in the
following areas:
1. Wiring design and protection, which include circuits (branch, feeder, etc.), protective
devices (fuses, circuit breakers, surge arresters, etc.), and grounding of all types.
2. Wiring methods and materials, which include cable, raceways, bus ways, wire-ways,
boxes, fittings, panel boards, switchboards, etc., of all types.
3. Equipment for general use, such as flexible cords, lighting fixtures, appliances,
heating—ventilating—air-conditioning equipment, motors, motor controllers, generators,
transformers, capacitors, resistors, reactors, and batteries.
4. Equipment and methods associated with special occupancies, such as places where
fire or explosion hazards may exist (garages, bulk-storage plants, aircraft hangars),
health facilities, theaters, studios, manufactured buildings, mobile homes and parks,
recreational vehicles, and marinas or boatyards.
5. Special occupancies such as hazardous areas, theaters, places of assembly,
manufactured buildings, agricultural buildings, mobile homes, recreational vehicles, and
marinas or boatyards.
6. Special equipment such as electric signs, cranes, hoists, elevators, escalators,
electric welders, sound-recording equipment, data-processing equipment, x-rays,
induction-dielectric heating equipment, metal-working tools, irrigation equipment, and
swimming pools.
7. Special electrical conditions, such as emergency systems; systems over 600 V;
installations under 50 V; remote-control, signaling, and limited-power circuits; standby
power-generation equipment; and fire-protective signaling systems.
8. Communications systems such as telephone, telegraph, central alarm stations, radio
and TV receiving and transmitting equipment, and CATV systems.
2. Simplified and True Wiring Diagrams

74
A true wiring diagram shows every wire and its connection in a system, or circuit. Such
a diagram is shown in Fig. 1 a, in which four ceiling light-fixture outlets are depicted, two
of which are connected to, and controlled by, individual single-pole single-throw
switches. A simplified arrangement of this branch is shown at the right in the same
figure. Here, approved symbols have been used for the light outlets, the switches, and
the wire run, which may be of nonmetallic sheathed cables, armored cables, or any
approved method of running conductors between outlets. The two parallel dashes
across the wire runs indicate that a two-wire conductor is to be used. Actually,
according to the standards, when a two-wire run is to be installed, the dashes may be
omitted. If the conductor is to be composed of more than two wires, dashes indicating
the number of wires must be provided on the drawing.
3. Wiring Symbols on a Simple Floor Plan
The architect usually shows the location of lights, convenience and special-purpose
outlets, and the desired switching arrangements on a floor plan. For small, simple
structures, the required symbols and wiring arrangements may be drawn on the same
floor plan (Fig. 2) that shows all information necessary for the erection of the building.
For larger or more complicated structures, complete wiring details will probably be
drawn on separate floor plans, called electrical layouts or electrical plans. In either case,
the simplified type of diagram, such as that shown in Fig. 11.1 , will be used. This wiring
layout will be drawn by an architect, engineer, or drafter who is familiar with the
engineering and building code requirements.
ELECTRIC SYMBOL (FIG 11.2)

75
4. Separate Electrical Plans
A plan for the electrical system of a small business building appears in Fig. 3. This
drawing was one of several, including plans and details for heating, air conditioning, and
plumbing, which appeared on a single sheet.
1. Fixture Schedule and Legend
Figure 11.2 shows a legend and fixture schedule that accompanies the electrical plan in
Fig. 11.3. Inclusion of such schedules and legends is the customary practice of
architects and consulting engineers who prepare electrical layouts and details for the
construction of buildings. The installation of the electrical system is facilitated by the
inclusion of a letter designation at each fixture symbol and cross-referenced
designations in an accompanying schedule. The exact form of the schedules has not
been standardized. A “remarks” column has been omitted from the original schedule
from which Fig.11.3 was taken in order to conserve space.
One explanation for the continued popularity of the four prongs is that many persons
feel that the plain circular symbol listed in ANS Y32.9 may be easily confused with other
circular symbols which may appear on drawings.
ELECTRICAL PLAN G.F (FIG 11.3)

76
ELECTICAL FIXTURE AND LEGEND (FIG 11.4)
 As Electric Energy Is Brought Into A Building, It Is Usually First Passed Through A
Meter. From Here It Is Brought Into A Main Load Center. In A Small Building Or
Residence This Load Center Consists Of A Fuse Box Or Circuit Breaker To Which Each
Branch Circuit Is Connected. Through These Branch Circuits Energy Is Fed To Each
Outlet, Lamp, or Appliance. In A Larger Structure The Main Circuit Breakers,
Disconnect Switches, And Other Controlling Devices. From These Panels Energy Is
Delivered through Branch Circuits to Each Out late, Fixture, Appliance, Or Motor. Such
As Location Of Panel boards, Voltage And Copper Losses, Etc.

77
ELECTRIC SYMBOL LIST (FIG 11.5)

78
12) ELEVATION DESIGN
Emphasis is important in the elevation design to lead the eye of the viewer to the
entrance, for example, or other important parts, and there are many ways to achieve
emphasis. Emphasis, by contrast, is one way. This contrast can be created by color or
shape and texture. There is also emphasis by isolation.
ELEVATION (FIG 12.1)
Architectural elevation should be harmonious with a degree of unity. Unity
makes the different elements and components of the elevation seem to be one, a whole
instead of parts. There are different ways to achieve unity. One way is by Repetition of
an element throughout the elevation to form a sort of a pattern.
Also called an “entry elevation,” the front elevation of a home plan shows
features such as entry doors, windows, the front porch and any items that protrude from
the home, such as side porches or chimneys.

79
ELEVATION DESIGN ON SITE (FIG 12.2)

80
The term elevation is simply the way the front, side or rear of a structure is
designed. When builders use the term they are referring to the different ways to build
the exterior of a house. Depending on the subdivision, buyers often have a choice
involving at least three to five elevations
SIDE VIEW OF ELEVATION (FIG 12.3)

81
An elevation is a view of a building seen from one side, a flat representation of
one façade. This is the most common view used to describe the external appearance of
a building. Architects also use the word elevation as a synonym for façade, so the
"north elevation" is the north-facing wall of the building.
WEST SIDE ELEVATION DESIGN (FIG 12.4)
An elevation sketch is an orthographic projection—a two-dimensional representation of
a three-dimensional space. For interior design, it is a two-dimensional drawing of a wall
(or series of walls) with varying degrees of detail.

82
ELEVATION VIDEO LINK:
There Are Many Of The Software To Make Elevation But Me Also Make
Elevation On AutoCAD Drawing And That Show To Make 3d Design In
AutoCAD, Revit, And All About Of 3ds Max .In The Case Of 3ds Max Very
Good Performance In Render Image Are Clear On Max Software.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e6wwcsM69WQ&t=1s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=siVn5f2233o
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tKcsaEqES8A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kMA3XF6yUv4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YOtuLU5K48w
MY VIDEO LINK:
https://youtu.be/QUOC1c5XcTM
https://youtu.be/AtvJuhJu5ro
https://youtu.be/urJQpf0PaRc
https://youtu.be/7suO_9mCaaY
https://youtu.be/v66lcVQG91o
https://youtu.be/0pAXH40MfWU
https://youtu.be/BPdrGq9HH8M
https://youtu.be/kPS35M7gY-c
https://youtu.be/vI6yQwWuB-Q
https://youtu.be/PtuFPUnHmbA

83
14) CONCLUTION
The Summer Internship Was A Very Good Experience. The Internship Is A Bridge
Between The Theoretical Knowledge And The Practical Or The Reality Work At The Field
Of Construction Or Civil Engineering Work.
The Internship Teaching That How To Apply Theoretical Knowledge At Construction Site.
Different Other Things Were Also Learned As The Names Of The Components In The
Local Or The Site Local Language Which They Generally Use For Communicating
The Internship Taught About The Steps Of The Foundation, Analysis Of The Structural
Drawing.
I Am Thankful To The Company For Giving Me Such A Great Opportunity.
This Is My Pleasure To Work With GAYTRI DEVLOPERS Company And Site Engineer

D18cl124 internship_report

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