Cross sectional research
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Cross-sectional research involves analyzing data from a population or subset at a single point in time. It provides a snapshot of populations by gathering data through repeated cross-sectional surveys that sample different individuals each time, rather than following the same individuals over time like longitudinal studies. Cross-sectional research is time efficient and requires no long term cooperation since it does not assess individual changes, but it cannot determine cause and effect or rule out alternative explanations.
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Cross sectional research desighn
Cross-sectional studies collect data from subjects at a single point in time to measure prevalence of characteristics. They provide a snapshot of variables like behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs in a population but cannot determine causation or change over time. One example documented increasing acceptance of racial equality over decades, while another examined relationships between beer consumption and obesity measures. Cross-sectional designs are useful for descriptive analyses but have limitations like inability to establish causality.
Longitudinal Design and its Types
This document discusses longitudinal design and its types. A longitudinal study observes the same subjects over an extended period of time to study changes. There are several types of longitudinal designs, including panel studies that follow the same individuals, cohort studies that follow groups based on a shared characteristic, and retrospective studies that examine past records. Longitudinal research can measure outcomes like risk factors, treatment effects, patterns of change and stability, and historical or developmental impacts. Key types are prospective panel studies with single or multiple cohorts, retrospective panel designs, record linkage studies, and repeated cross-sectional trend studies.
Cross and longitudinal studies
This document compares and contrasts cross-sectional and longitudinal study designs. Cross-sectional studies take a snapshot to compare different population groups at a single point in time, allowing comparison of multiple variables. However, they do not show cause-and-effect relationships. Longitudinal studies observe the same subjects over long periods of time, which allows researchers to detect changes in populations and establish sequences of events, making them better able to suggest cause-and-effect relationships. Researchers may start with a faster cross-sectional study and then conduct a longitudinal study to further examine causes and effects.
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This document discusses longitudinal survey research design. It describes longitudinal research as involving repeated observations of the same variables over time. The document outlines the main types of longitudinal research: trend studies, which examine changes within a population over time; cohort studies, which identify a subgroup sharing a characteristic to study over time; and panel studies, which examine the same individuals repeatedly. Strengths are identified as the ability to establish sequences of events and trace development. Drawbacks include high costs and risk of participants dropping out.
Longitudinal research
Longitudinal research involves studying the same sample of individuals over multiple points in time. There are three main types of longitudinal studies: trend studies sample different groups over time from the same population; cohort analyses measure characteristics of groups that experience the same life events; and panel studies measure the same sample at different points to reveal changes. Combining qualitative and quantitative data in longitudinal research allows qualitative data to aid interpretation and suggest new hypotheses. Conducting longitudinal research online through internet surveys panels has advantages like easier recruitment but also disadvantages like lack of representation.
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• Example:
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• Example:
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• Example:
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Types of Validity:
1. Logic valididty:
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I. Face Validity:
It is the extent to which the measurement method appears “on its face” to measure the construct of interest.
• Example:
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II. Content Validity:
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Example:
For physical fitness temperature, height and stamina are supposed to be assess then a test of fitness must include content about temperatures, height and stamina.
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An IQ test should correlate positively with school performance.
An occupational aptitude test should correlate positively with work performance.
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• Example:
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• A new measure of self-esteem should correlate positively with an old established measure. When the criterion is something that will happen or be assessed in the future, this is called predictive validity.
• Example:
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This document discusses different types of research designs used in marketing research. It describes exploratory research as research conducted when little is known about a problem to gain insights and hypotheses. Descriptive research aims to describe important variables like who, what, where, and how. The goal is to determine frequencies and relationships between variables. Longitudinal research involves repeated measurements of a panel over time, while cross-sectional research measures a sample only once to generate summary statistics. Exploratory and descriptive designs use methods like secondary data analysis, interviews, and focus groups to collect data.
Research design
The document discusses different types of research design used in conducting research studies. It describes exploratory, descriptive, comparative, and interventional research designs. Exploratory research aims to gain insights, descriptive research describes variables as they exist using methods like surveys and case studies, comparative research examines relationships and differences between variables, and interventional research tests hypotheses by manipulating variables and comparing experimental and control groups. The key elements of research design discussed are problem identification, data collection and analysis methods, population and sampling, and reporting findings.
Papulation
This document defines key concepts related to population and sampling in research. It discusses the differences between populations, target populations, and accessible populations. It also defines sampling as selecting a subset of a population. There are two main types of sampling: probability sampling, where every element has an equal chance of being selected, and non-probability sampling, where chance is not involved. Some examples of probability sampling methods provided are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. Examples of non-probability sampling include convenience sampling, snowball sampling, quota sampling, and purposive sampling. Factors that determine an adequate sample size include the homogeneity of the population and desired level of precision.
research methods
The document discusses various methods of sampling that can be used in research. It defines key sampling concepts and describes different probability and non-probability sampling techniques. Some of the main sampling methods discussed include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling, purposive sampling, accidental sampling, and quota sampling. The document emphasizes that probability sampling enhances representation and allows for estimating sampling error, while acknowledging that non-probability methods are also sometimes used.
2. Unit 3 Part II - (c) Cross-sectional & longitudinal study 2022.9.19.pdf
Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies are two important observational study designs used in epidemiology. A cross-sectional study collects data on exposures and outcomes from a population at a single point in time, allowing researchers to examine the prevalence of diseases or risk factors. While easy to conduct, cross-sectional studies cannot determine causality. Longitudinal studies follow the same group of people over time, enabling researchers to better establish temporal relationships and causality but requiring more resources. Examples are provided to illustrate the differences between cross-sectional and longitudinal study designs.
Research Methodology by Dr. Jatinder Kumar.pdf
This document discusses various types of research including quantitative research, qualitative research, scientific research, historical research, descriptive research, survey research, case study research, experimental research, and literature reviews. It provides definitions and examples of each type of research. The key aspects covered include how quantitative research aims to quantify variables through structured data collection, while qualitative research is exploratory in nature. It also discusses the importance of reviewing relevant literature as an integral part of the research process.
chapter8-sampling-IoxO.pptx
This document discusses sampling and different sampling methods. It defines sampling as selecting a small group from a larger population to make conclusions about the whole group. There are probability and non-probability sampling methods. Probability methods like simple random, stratified, cluster, and systematic sampling give reliable representations by randomly selecting participants. Non-probability methods like convenience, judgmental, snowball, and quota sampling rely on researcher judgment and cannot generalize to the full population. The document provides examples and explanations of each sampling method.
chapter8-sampling-IoxO.pptx
This document discusses sampling and different sampling methods. It defines sampling as selecting a small group from a larger population to make conclusions about the whole group. There are probability and non-probability sampling methods. Probability methods like simple random, stratified, cluster, and systematic sampling give reliable representations if everyone has an equal chance of selection. Non-probability methods like convenience, judgmental, snowball, and quota sampling rely on the researcher's judgment and cannot generalize to the full population. The document provides examples and explanations of each sampling method.
Sampling
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than others. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
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This document discusses strategies for identifying and approaching different types of customers. It outlines loyal, fickle, renewing, and new customers and recommends offering high-value products and frequent communication to loyal customers, identifying satisfaction levels and creating a trust-building plan for fickle customers, determining reasons for drifting away and regaining confidence for renewing customers, and gathering information and persuading capabilities for new customers. It also provides tips on grasping customers' attention through store environment and merchandise and appropriately timing engagement to be helpful from the customer's perspective.
Compensation and benefits
Compensation plays an important role in attracting and retaining employees while ensuring optimal performance. It includes direct compensation like wages and salaries as well as indirect compensation like benefits. Equity theory and expectancy theory provide frameworks for understanding what motivates employees regarding compensation. Compensation approaches include job-based systems that consider the position as well as individual skill/knowledge-based systems that consider the person. Key decisions involve balancing fixed vs variable pay and using individual vs team-based incentives.
Roger - Consumer Buying
Everett Rogers developed the Diffusion of Innovations Theory to predict how new ideas and technologies are adopted by different groups over time. The theory has been applied across many fields and proposes that adoption follows an S-shaped curve, with innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards adopting at different stages. It also describes how these groups differ in their openness to new ideas and their willingness to adopt innovations early.
Industrial buyer behaviour
The document discusses industrial buying behavior and the purchasing process. It describes the objectives, phases, and situations involved in organizational purchasing. The phases include recognizing needs, determining specifications, searching for suppliers, evaluating proposals, selecting suppliers, and providing feedback. Key roles in the buying center/decision-making unit are initiators, buyers, users, influencers, deciders, and gatekeepers. The purchasing objectives center around delivery, quality, price, services, relationships, and personal career goals.
Group influences
This document discusses various external and internal influences on consumer behavior. It covers topics such as culture, demographics, social groups, reference groups, personality, perception, learning, and group influences. Specifically, it describes how reference groups can influence consumers through informational and normative influence. It also discusses diffusion of innovations and how different types of consumers adopt innovations at different stages.
Consumer Buying Behaviour
The document discusses the consumer buying decision process, including problem recognition, information search, alternative evaluation and selection, and post-purchase behavior. It also covers types of consumer decisions based on purchase involvement (habitual, limited, extended decision making) and the different levels of information search that correspond. Marketing strategies are proposed based on the decision making process and type, such as maintenance strategies for habitual purchases or intercept strategies for brands not in a consumer's evoked set during limited decision making. Evaluation criteria are provided for various product categories like color TVs, shaving cream, cameras, and automobiles.
Opportunity validation
The document discusses frameworks for validating business opportunities, including Porter's Five Forces analysis and the 7+1 framework. It focuses on analyzing sectors like telecom and consumer goods using these models. Key aspects of opportunity validation covered include evaluating the market size, customer needs, competitive landscape, management team, and ensuring the opportunity has positive present value, is timely, and can be implemented and scaled efficiently.
Market sizing
This document discusses market sizing and different terms used in market sizing such as Potential Available Market (PAM), Total Available Market (TAM), Serviceable Addressable Market (SAM), and Serviceable Obtainable Market (SOM). It provides examples of how to calculate market sizes for different industries and locations. The document also discusses approaches like top-down and bottom-up for estimating market sizes and emphasizes the importance of clear assumptions.
Business models
1. The document discusses different types of business models including product/service, B2B/B2C, and sector-specific models.
2. It contrasts the traditional "pipe" model, where value is created at one point and delivered elsewhere, with the platform model where producers and consumers interact directly to co-create value.
3. Popular digital business models are discussed including marketplace, on-demand, access-over-ownership, hypermarket, subscription-based, free, freemium, experience, and ecosystem models. Each has different focuses like customer acquisition or consistent service delivery.
Time series forecasting
The document provides an overview of time-series forecasting methods, including:
1) It discusses trend analysis, seasonality, cyclical behavior, and various forecasting techniques such as the ratio-to-moving average method and exponential smoothing.
2) Exponential smoothing is described as a forecasting method that gives the largest weight to present observations and smaller, geometrically declining weights to past observations.
3) An example demonstrates exponential smoothing on a time series using weighting factors of 0.4 and 0.8, showing the smoothed series for each weight.
Forecasting exponential smoothing
Exponential smoothing uses all time series values to generate forecasts, with lesser weights given to older observations. It calculates a smoothed level (Lt) at each period (t) as a weighted average of the current value (yt) and the previous smoothed level (Lt-1). This smoothed level then becomes the forecast for the next period. The smoothing constant (α) determines the weights, with lower α producing a "flatter" smoothed series that changes less over time.
Summer internship - Report
The document provides details about Sublaxmi Gupta's summer internship project at WELINGKAR INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT & RESEARCH. It summarizes the Management Leadership Program (MLP) that Sublaxmi participated in. The 2-month program involved various projects, mentorship, reviews, and training. Sublaxmi gained experience in digital marketing, content creation, and operations management through projects focused on online content, social media marketing, website updates, and improving business processes. Overall, the internship provided valuable real-world experience working on strategic initiatives for an education company.
GSK
The document lists various pharmaceutical, vaccine, and consumer healthcare products produced by GlaxoSmithKline, including drugs like Advair, vaccines like Boostrix, and consumer products like Horlicks nutritional drink. It also provides key details about GSK's operations in India such as management personnel, advertising and media agencies used. The list of products spans treatment areas like respiratory diseases, infections, pain relief, and oral healthcare.
Marketing
Fresh Corner Bakery manufactures different varieties of khari and toast at its manufacturing unit located in Val village. The bakery was established in 2015 and has 6 employees including one sales person. It manufactures 5 types of khari and 3 types of toast using first-hand machines. The initial investment was Rs. 40,00,000. The bakery distributes its products in Thane, Kalyan, Bhiwandi and nearby locations through delivery by a sales boy every day except Friday. The bakery invests Rs. 100,000 per month in manufacturing and makes a monthly profit of the same amount. Its target market includes people in the vicinity where it offers affordable prices.
Advertising
The document discusses an advertisement concept involving a group of girls going on a trip together. In the concept, the girls inform their parents they will be unreachable for two days due to no connectivity in the remote area they are visiting. However, one girl's phone rings and they discover she has network coverage, allowing her to do a video call with her parents. The concept aims to show the exceptional connectivity of a particular network across India, even in secluded areas where other networks don't work. It effectively conveys the network's coverage by surprising the girls with a call in a remote location.
Ongc & carbon credit market
The document discusses carbon credit markets and how ONGC, India's largest oil and gas company, is involved. It provides an introduction to carbon credits and their need, trading, and value. It then focuses on ONGC's activities in the carbon credit market, including how it generates credits from reducing greenhouse gas emissions in its energy operations. The document concludes by thanking the reader.
7 Power and politics
This document discusses power and politics in organizations. It defines power as one's ability to influence another's behavior according to their wishes. There are five bases of power: formal power from one's position, and personal power from expertise, relationships, or traits. Political behavior is any non-required activity to influence advantages, and can be legitimate everyday politics or illegitimate extreme actions. Politics is natural due to scarce resources leading to competition. Impression management techniques like self-promotion can influence performance evaluations.
5 Organizational change
This document summarizes key concepts around organizational change and stress management. It defines organizational change and identifies forces that drive change. It also discusses approaches to managing change, including Lewin's three-step model and Kotter's eight-step plan. Additionally, it defines work stress, identifies potential stress sources, and compares individual and organizational approaches to managing stress. Finally, it discusses global implications of change and stress management.
4 organizational culture
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3 Organization structure
At Microsoft, the company organizes itself according to four customer segments to better understand and serve different types of customers. This allows Microsoft to design specific products and services for each segment. There are six key elements that managers consider when designing an organizational structure: work specialization, departmentalization, chain of command, span of control, centralization/decentralization, and formalization. These elements determine how tasks are divided and coordinated within a company. Common organizational designs include simple structures, bureaucracies, and matrix structures. The appropriate design depends on factors like the company's strategy, size, and environment.
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Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
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Cross sectional research
- 1. CROSS SECTIONAL RESEARCH -Sublaxmi Gupta, Abhishek Gupta, Bhagyashree Girhe, Kunal Goswami
- 2. Introduction Cross Sectional Research Example Cross Sectional vs Longitudinal Research Uses of Cross Sectional Research Summary Table Of Contents
- 3. Introduction • A cross-sectional study (also known as a cross-sectional analysis, transversal study, prevalence study) is a type of observational study that analyses data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time. • Cross-sectional surveys have been described as snapshots of the populations about which they gather data.
- 4. Cross Sectional Research Cross-sectional surveys may be repeated periodically In a repeated cross- sectional survey, respondents to the survey at one point in time are not intentionally sampled again. Although a respondent to one administration of the survey could be randomly selected for a subsequent one Cross-sectional surveys can thus be contrasted with panel surveys, for which the individual respondents are followed over time. “Cross Sectional Research is time efficient.”
- 5. Example Involves using different groups of people who differ in the variable of interest but share other characteristics, such as socio economic status, educational background & ethnicity. This method is used to gather information only It is a type of observational study that analyses data collected from the population These studies are easier to carry out “Individual changes are not assessed in Cross Sectional Research” Does the % of women diagnosed with cancer increase with age? Let us look at similar women of different age groups Calculate % of women diagnosed with cancer in each group
- 6. Cross Sectional vs Longitudinal Research Longitudinal Research No cohort or generational effects. Assesses individual behaviour changes Time consuming Participant dropout may contain bias Potential for practice effects “Cross Sectional Research requires no long term co- operation ”
- 7. Uses of Cross Sectional Research Limitations Potential temporal ambiguity (exposure and disease) In is inefficient for studying highly fatal disease Further errors would be because of error in recall of exposure and possible outcome. Cofounding factors may not be equally distributed between the groups being compared. “It is relatively feasible as there is no follow up”
- 8. Summary
- 9. Thank you