Examine the composition of national income (or national output);
Study the concepts of Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and differentiate between the two measures;
Look at the two approaches to measuring GDP and GNP;
Learn the differences between real and nominal output: and
Learn what economists use to determine whether the national economy is growing or not.
Examine the composition of national income (or national output);
Study the concepts of Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and differentiate between the two measures;
Look at the two approaches to measuring GDP and GNP;
Learn the differences between real and nominal output: and
Learn what economists use to determine whether the national economy is growing or not.
A breakeven analysis is used to determine how much sales volume your business needs to start making a profit.
The breakeven analysis is especially useful when you're developing a pricing strategy, either as part of a marketing plan or a business plan.
This is an Economics project which will help in understanding the concept of production, the costs involved in it, and the contributing factors associated with both.
Marginal costing is a costing technique wherein the marginal cost, i.e. variable cost is charged to units of cost, while the fixed cost for the period is completely written off against the contribution.
WHY IS THE ALLOCATION METHOD USED IN ACCOUNTING FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AP...Mashfiq Albartross
To determine the cost of goods we have to determine the factory overhead. Cost of goods are included all the costs occurred during the production including direct and indirect material, labor and all the factory overhead costs. We use allocation method to determine the factory overhead costs. If we can’t determine the factory overhead costs we can’t find out the actual cost of the goods those are produced and the sale value we can’t determine correctly. Because cost of a good is consisted with factory overhead costs. Factory overhead expenses should be determined otherwise understated rate of a good can occur. Because if we can’t determine the factory overhead costs we can’t actually determine the cost of a good that is prepared for sale.
Allocation methods are used to determine factory overhead costs. Organizations use Applied or Actual factory overhead allocation methods to determine the Factory overhead costs. Cost of goods are lied with these factory overhead costs. So if we need to determine the amount in which we need to sale a good we need to determine it’s total manufacturing costs. Otherwise loss will occur.
Self control of synchronous motor drives
Phase-Controlled Cycloconverters
Synchronous Motor Drive
Self controlled sync. Motor drive using a cycloconverter
Owen’s bridge and measurement of increment inductancevishalgohel12195
Owen’s bridge and measurement of increment inductance
Effect On Induced Voltage.
Measurements Of Incremental Inductance
Diagram Of Increment Inductance.
Description Of Ø-i Magnetizing Curve
Initial and final condition for circuit
Explain the transient response of a RC circuit
As the capacitor stores energy when there is:
a transition in a unit step function source, u(t-to)
or a voltage or current source is switched into the circuit.
Explain the transient response of a RL circuit
As the inductor stores energy when there is:
a transition in a unit step function source, u(t-to)
or a voltage or current source is switched into the circuit.
RC Circuit
RL Circuit
FSK , FM DEMODULATOR & VOLTAGE REGULATOR ICS
Application of PLL in FSK & FM demodulation three terminal regulator ics.
Adjustable output voltage regulator LM 317, LM 337 & LM 340 series power supply ics.
Basic design considerations for designed regulated power supply
Concept of general terms pertaining to rotating machinesvishalgohel12195
Concept of general terms pertaining to rotating machines
Physical concept of force and torque production.
Concept of general terms pertaining to rotating machines.
Generated emf in full pitched and short pitched winding.
Transfer Function and Mathematical Modeling
Transfer Function
Poles And Zeros of a Transfer Function
Properties of Transfer Function
Advantages and Disadvantages of T.F.
Translation motion
Rotational motion
Translation-Rotation counterparts
Analogy system
Force-Voltage analogy
Force-Current Analogy
Advantages
Example
Winding
What is Armature winding?
Terms related to armature winding.
Single layer and double layer windings.
Comparison between closed and open windings.
Types of DC armature winding.
Types of AC armature winding.
Protection against overvoltage
overvoltage
causes of overvoltage
lightning
types of lightning strokes
harmful effect of lightning
protection against lightning
On load tap changer in a.c. locomotive transformer & air blast circuit b...vishalgohel12195
On load tap changer In A.C. locomotive transformer & Air blast circuit breaker
Introduction
Block diagram of A.C. Locomotive
Equipment of locomotive & their function
Advantages
Disadvantages
Logical instruction of 8085
Instruction Set of 8085
Classification of Instruction Set
Logical Instructions
AND, OR, XOR
Logical Instructions
Summary Logical Group
Effect of non sinusoidal waveform of a.c. machine performancevishalgohel12195
Effect of Non sinusoidal waveform of A.C. Machine performance
Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
Key Similarities and Differences between Sinusoidal and Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
Effect of harmonics in motor drives
Square wave inverter with 180° mode
Effect of leakage reactance on the harmonic content of current
Parasitic torques due to non-sinusoidal voltages
Disadvantages of corona, radio interference, inductive interference between p...vishalgohel12195
Disadvantages of corona, radio interference, inductive interference between power and communication lines
Introduction
Disadvantages of corona.
Radio interference.
Inductive interference between power and communication lines
Design, Planning and Layout of high voltage laboratory vishalgohel12195
Design, Planning and Layout of high voltage laboratory
Test equipment provided in high voltage lab
Activity and study in high voltage lab
Classification of high voltage lab
Clearance of high voltage Lab
Layout of high voltage lab
Safety
Shielding of the high voltage lab
Design considerations of electrical installationsvishalgohel12195
Design considerations of electrical installations
Types of Loads
Estimation of load
Demand factor
Load factor
Diversity factor
Electric supply system
Overhead supply system
Underground cable system
Selection of type of wiring
Durability
Appearance
Cost
Safety
Accessibility
Maintenance cost
System of wiring
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Overview of the fundamental roles in Hydropower generation and the components involved in wider Electrical Engineering.
This paper presents the design and construction of hydroelectric dams from the hydrologist’s survey of the valley before construction, all aspects and involved disciplines, fluid dynamics, structural engineering, generation and mains frequency regulation to the very transmission of power through the network in the United Kingdom.
Author: Robbie Edward Sayers
Collaborators and co editors: Charlie Sims and Connor Healey.
(C) 2024 Robbie E. Sayers
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
2. CONTENTS
• CONCEPTS OF COST
• VARIOUS TYPES OF COST
• BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS
• BREAK EVEN POINT
3. CONCEPT OF COST
For every business organization, it is
essential to install a set up as per the nature and
need of the product. Number of employees are
employed in the business organization for
transforming the raw material into finished
products using machines. So, business
organization incurs various types of costs.
So, profit = Total Revenue –Total Costs
4. VARIOUS TYPES OF COST
TOTAL COST
TOTAL COST
Total cost is summation of fixed cost and variable
cost.
Total cost = Fixed cost + Variable cost
5. VARIABLE COST
Variable cost is the cost which varies with number
of unit produced. It increases with increase in number of
units produced and vice versa.
Example - Raw material consumption, Electricity bill, Extra
labour hours etc.
FIXED COST
Fixed cost is the cost which do not vary with
number of units produced. It incurs even if the organization
does not produce a single unit of product.
Example - Rent, Advertising, Insurance, Cost of machine
installation, Salaries of employees, Minimum electricity bill etc.
6. DIRECT COST
Direct cost can be completely attributed to the
production of specific goods or service. Direct costs refer to
materials, labor and expenses related to the production of a
product. Direct cost varies with number of unit produced.
Example – Electricity bill, installation of machinary etc.
INDIRECT COST
Expenses which are not specific to any product or
good, but these type of cost are incurred in combined for the
business are termed as indirect cost.
Example – Rent, Advertising, Maintenance, Security etc.
7. AVERAGE COST
Average cost is equal to total cost divided by the number
of units of goods produced.
Average cost is also known as unit cost.
MARGINAL COST
Marginal Cost is defined as the ratio of change of total
cost to the change in quantity produced.
8. INCREMENTAL COST
Incremental cost is the cost associated with increasing
production by one unit. The incremental cost total is always
made up of purely variable costs.
RECURRING COST
For each item produced or each service performed is
termed as recurring cost.
Example – Insurance premium, Electricity bill etc.
9. NON – RECURRING COST
A one-time Charge incurred as a result of rare event or
activity, such as purchase of machine, building construction,
design, development and investment cost is termed as
non-recurring cost.
SUNK COST
Sunk cost is a retrospective (past) cost that has already
been incurred and cannot be recovered. Sunk costs are
independent of any event that may occur in the future.
10. IMPLICIT COST
An implicit cost, also called an imputed cost, implied
cost, or notional cost, is the opportunity cost equal to what a
firm must given up in order to use factors which it neither
purchases nor hires.
OPPORTUNITY COST
When any of the option is selected out of available
options, other options are not selected. Hence, selector
sacrifices all other options. So, the value which is forgone for
selecting the mutually exclusive alternatives is termed as
opportunity cost.
11. CASH COST
Cash costs are costs are costs that businesses pay
for when using cash, or a check, but not credit. On a cash
accounting basis, the cost paid for by using credit would not
be recorded in the general ledger until the actual cash has
been paid.
SHORT RUN COST
We consider that any company is installing a plant
for manufacturing a product. For certain period of time,
company cannot adjust the number or size of plants. By hiring
more workers only number of products manufactured can be
increased. So, fixed cost incurred in installing the plant cannot
be varied during certain period of time, is termed as short run
cost.
12. LONG RUN COST
After several years, company can either expand the
existing plant or increase the number of plants. So, in long
run cost of plants can be varied and hence it is termed as
long run cost.
13. BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS - BEP
The point at which the company starts to
earn profit is termed as Break Even Point (BEP)
and its analysis is termed as Break Even
analysis (BEA).
Sales revenue = All variable fixed cost
Methods to find out BEP
BEP in Physical Quantity Produced
BEP in terms of Sales Volume
14. BEP in Physical Quantity Produced
BEP is defined as the ratio of total fixed cost to the
contribution per unit. Here, contribution is defined as the
difference between revenue generated and variable cost
incurred.
Where, Contribution (C) = Revenue – Variable Cost
15. BEP in terms of Sales Volume
BEP is defined as the ratio of fixed cost to the
contribution ratio. Contribution ratio is the ratio of total
contribution to the total sales. This indicates the profit per
unit volume sold. So, contribution ratio also known as P/V
ratio.