Communication is a process of transmitting information from a sender to a receiver. It involves encoding a message, selecting a medium to transmit it, and decoding the message. Key aspects of the communication process include the sender, message, medium, receiver, feedback, context, and potential barriers. Effective communication requires understanding different levels of communication including content, feelings, and underlying motivations. It also requires strong transmission, reception, and facilitation skills. Interpersonal dynamics further impact communication through nonverbal cues and behaviors.

1. COMMUNICATION
Definition:
Communication is a process where people (communicator) sending stimulus in purpose to
change or to make behavior of other people.( Hovland, Janis & Kelley : 1953 )
Communication is a process sending information, idea, emotion, ability, etc. By using symbols
such as words, pictures, numbers, etc. ( Berelson dan Stainer : 1964 )
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process is the steps we take in order to achieve a successful communication.
Robert Kreitner defined, “Communication process is a chain made up of identifiable links. The
chain includes sender, encoding, message, receiver, decoding, and feedback.
Characteristics of communication process:
 It is a continuous process.
 Pre-requisite of communication is a message.
 This message must be conveyed through some medium to the recipient.
 It is essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in same terms as intended
by the sender.
 He must respond within a time frame.
 It is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to the sender
on how well the message is understood by him.

2. Components of communication process :
Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be
physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The sender
chooses the message to communicate within a context.
Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of
symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response.
Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills,
competencies, and knowledge of the sender have a great impact on the message. The verbal and non
verbal symbols chosen are essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by the recipient in the
same terms as intended by the sender.
Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It can be verbal or non –
verbal or in some other symbolic form(eg:art).
It is a sign that elicits the response of recipient. Communication process begins with deciding about the
message to be conveyed. It must be ensured that the main objective of the message is clear.
Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message. The three main
communication channels are auditory,visual & kinaesthetic.The sender must choose an appropriate
medium for transmitting the message, else the message might not be conveyed to the desired
recipients.
The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective
and correctly interpreted by the recipient. This choice of communication medium varies depending
upon the features of communication.
For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of
people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient as
misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed /
targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent upon various factors
such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message, and the reliance of encoder on
decoder.

3. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to
analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct interpretation of
message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-verbal (in form of smiles,
sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos, reports, etc.
Factors influencing the communication process
Development
 Language & communication skills develop through various stages
 Infant/toddlers - rely on nonverbal communication
 Children - may use pictures as an adjunct to verbal language to communicate
 Adolescents/adults - rely on verbal language
 Older adults- may use visual communication methods for hearing impaired, or aural
communication for visually impaired
Gender
 Males & females communicate differently
 Males use communication to establish independence & negotiate status w/in a group
 Females use communication to seek confirmation, minimize differences & establish or
reinforce intimacy
 The same communication may be interpreted differently by a man & a woman
Sociocultural Characteristics
 Culture, education, economic level can influence communication
 Body language, eye contact, and touch are influenced by cultural beliefs about appropriate
communication behaviour.
 Education level may affect the extent of their vocabulary or their ability to access written
communication
 Many people use the internet or e-mail to communicate but not everyone can afford a computer
or have access to one
Values and Perceptions
 Each person has unique personality traits, values, and life experiences, each will perceive and
interpret messages and experiences differently
 It is important for the nurse to be aware of a client's values and to validate or correct
perceptions to avoid creating barriers in the nurse-client relationship
Personal Space
 The distance people prefer in interactions with others.
 Middle-class North Americans use definite distances in various interpersonal relationships,
along with specific voice tones and body language.
1. Intimate: touching - 1.5 feet 2. Personal: 1.5 -4 feet
3. Social: 4-12 feet 4. Public 12-15 feet

4. Territoriality
 Space and things considered as belonging to the individuals self
 Ex: pt in a hospital often consider their territory as bounded by curtains around the bed unit or
the walls of a private room
 Nurses need to obtain permission from clients to remove, rearrange, or borrow objects in their
hospital area
Roles and Relationships
 Roles & relationships between sender & receiver affect the content and responses in the
communication process.
 Choice of words, sentence structure, message content and channel, body language, and tone of
voice vary considerably from role to role.
 The specific relationship between communicators is significant (the nurse who meets a pt for
the first time communicates differently from the nurse who has previously developed a
relationship with that pt)
Environment
 People usually communicate most effectively in a comfortable environment
 Temperature extremes, excessive noise, and a poorly ventilated environment can all interfere
with communication
 Environmental distraction can impair and distort communication
Congruence
 Verbal & nonverbal aspects of the message match
 This helps the client to more readily trust the nurse
 Helps prevent miscommunication
Interpersonal Attitudes
 Attitudes convey beliefs, thoughts, and feelings about people and events
 Attitudes are communicated convincingly and rapidly to others
 Attitudes such as caring, warmth, respect, and acceptance facilitate communication
 Lack of interest, and coldness inhibit communication
Importance in Nursing Practice
Abstract
Good communication between nurses and patients is essential for the successful outcome of
individualized nursing care of each patient. To achieve this, however, nurses must understand and help
their patients, demonstrating courtesy, kindness and sincerity. Also they should devote time to the
patient to communicate with the necessary confidentiality, and must not forget that this communication
includes persons who surround the sick person, which is why the language of communication should
be understood by all those involved in it. Good communication also is not only based on the physical
abilities of nurses, but also on education and experience.

5. COMMUNICATION WITH INDIVIDUAL & IN GROUP
Individual communication is one-on-one interaction with another. Individual communication allows
for continuous feedback based on each person’s input. The communication that takes place between
two individuals is very specific to each other’s responses.
Since the flow of communication is continuous, individuals have a better understanding of each others
thoughts and opinions and can respond directly back to each other.
Group communication is contact between more than two people in a group. Group communication is
more than one person communicating to a group; it is many people interacting together. Group
communication relies on prior understanding of the group objectives and the group's culture.
Group Communications (GC) is an informal method in which information is distributed among team
members. GC is a collective effort of developing concepts, generating ideas and developing a
collaborative atmosphere for project planning and implementation.
The difference between group communication and individual communication is that group
communication is often related to a unified voice within the group.
For example, a team of writers for a popular television show must all agree on what should and should
not be included in the script; therefore, the final draft must be approved by all members before their
audiences are able to review the finished product, thus creating a "groupthink" mentality. In essence,
group communications is a union between multiple members that facilitates one group's mentality, one
group thought and one voice. Individual communications (IC) is the act of communicating an idea or
concept without the accompaniment of other team members to collaborate with. Each idea generated is
solely that of the individual in which case it is up to the individual to implement a strategy to
accomplish his/her goal or main objective.
Strategies to Promote Individual & Group Communication
Effective communication in the workplace helps all staffers stay apprised about what's going on with
the company and where they stand with individual and group project completion. In addition to
developing a company-wide communications policy for how individuals and departments collaborate
and share information, other one-on-one and group initiatives can also help ensure messages are
getting through loud and clear.
Staff Meetings
Hold regular staff meetings, particularly for individual departments or individual department teams.
Ensure everyone has an opportunity to contribute and deliver project reports and updates as part of the
process. Distribute an agenda before each meeting and send out a meeting summary or minutes after
the gathering.
Employee Briefings
Conduct regular employee briefings where you disseminate information about things that are going on
in the company. This helps employees understand how their daily responsibilities become part of the
bigger picture in terms of long-term corporate strategy and planning. It also reduces the potential for
unfounded gossip.

6. Electronic Communication
Use a company intranet, email, text messaging and voice mail system in such a way that staffers are
able to easily connect with each other and share information. State your policies for writing and
distributing memos, copying others on emails and forwarding pertinent information to other
individuals and departments. This will help streamline electronic communication so it is effective
rather than overwhelming.
Communication Boards
Put up good old-fashioned bulletin boards where departments and individuals can post notices, memos
and announcements. Use visual workflow charts as well to help keep staff members apprised of
projects, upcoming deadlines and individual and departmental responsibilities.
One-on-One Meetings
Hold one-on-one meetings with staffers to engage them, assess progress, troubleshoot, seek input and
give feedback. Often brief, personal exchanges are more effective and time-efficient than large
gatherings. Encourage other forms of small group communication, such as dividing departments into
smaller work groups that communicate directly with one another, and then assign a spokesperson to
convey pertinent information to others as needed. Provide coaching and mentoring opportunities, as
well as conflict-resolution training for your employees.
Employee Groups
Employee groups comprised of representatives of various departments in an organization can help a
multi-level company communicate more effectively. For example, a community service committee
may meet, discuss ideas for community support initiatives, then convey thoughts and ideas back to
their own departments for feedback. At a subsequent meeting, collective ideas are discussed and
vetted. Cross-disciplinary and cross-department interaction can be a creative engine for project
innovation and problem solving.
The Dynamics of Communication
Communication between two people consists of transmitting and receiving. If both parties are
performing both tasks effectively, there is good communication. This sounds very simple and obvious.
In reality, it is difficult for most people to achieve. Communication is even difficult when concerned
only with intellectual or cognitive content ─ explaining an idea or a theory, giving directions or
instructions, delivering a message. Problems of vocabulary, colloquial expressions, semantic
difficulties complicate transmitting. This makes reception more difficult. Even assuming efficient
transmission, many people do not listen carefully enough to be efficient receivers anyway.
When people are personally involved, clear two-way communication is even more difficult because
feelings and emotions are present. Most serious communication difficulties are due to feelings. Yet in
personal interactions, feelings are the most important aspect of the communication. When people
become deeply involved in a democratic relationship, communicating freely is very difficult.
Most of us need help in communicating effectively. Communication training is best accomplished in
groups. Communication skills learned in groups may immediately be applied to two-party
relationships.

7. Levels of Communication
To understand better the complexities of communication, let us look at the various levels on which
communication may take place. There are at least four such levels.
1. Content - the factual material, the basic words themselves, or what one is talking about.
2. Feelings - I may be talking about how to build a sailboat, a painting, or anything. If the subject is
very important, I will very likely be experiencing some feelings - enthusiasm, pleasure, disgust, or
whatever - as I’m transmitting. The feelings are a vital and important and I may not feel very important
if these feelings are ignored or misunderstood.
3. Feelings about feelings - I may be talking about boat building, and feeling very enthusiastic, but I
may also be embarrassed or ashamed of my enthusiasm. Or I may be angry with you, but also feel
guilty or fearful about my anger. Feelings about feelings are an important aspect of communication
and can create many problems in communication.
4. The fourth level pertains to the motivation involved, or what the transmitter is seeking. Why is s/he
transmitting this message? What is the purpose, the reason, for her telling me this? What does the
transmitter want, what is s/he up to, or seeking from me? I may be discussing boat building with you in
an effort to impress you with my knowledge, or because I want to sell you something, or in an effort to
get you to help me, or simply because you are my friend, and I want to share my pleasure with you.
Communication Skills
Transmission - Everyone needs other people with whom to share themselves, their thoughts, ideas,
feelings, experiences, problems, and needs. In order to share, they must transmit; everyone is a
transmitter of some sort, good, bad, or indifferent. Efficient transmitters can share themselves,
especially feelings, with other people freely and without static, distortion, or interference. Clear
transmission facilitates clear reception.
Transmission is not sufficient when:
• transmitters are not aware of the messages they are sending,
• two or more different, and conflicting, messages are being sent,
• messages are transmitted in some code, or language which receivers do not understand,
• when real messages are disguised, expressed indirectly or hidden within messages, or
• transmitters communicate too much information.
Reception - Clear reception of another's transmission occurs when the receiver can restate the full
message to the transmitter's satisfaction. In radio communication the receiver will often respond with
the phrase, "I read you loud and clear." Actually, this may or may not be the case. Transmitters may
think their message clear, but they may not be communicating at all. They may be dealing with two
different messages. This is true of much interpersonal communication, especially communicating
feelings. The greatest difficulty is usually in the original reception.

8. A basic rule of communication is that it is not accomplished until checked out or confirmed. Most
confirm critical messages; few bother to do this in ordinary communication. Confirming messages is
relatively simple, if we make the effort.
Good reception requires:
 concentrated effort and attention.
 listening or thinking with the speaker instead of about them or about other things.
 Getting away with preoccupation
Difficulties of reception:
Receivers may complicate matters with their own problems.
 They may ignore, or be afraid of feelings to the point that they can only recognize or respond to
content.
 they may be so concerned with making the right response or not letting themselves be
manipulated, that they only attend to the transmitter's motives.
 Many individuals are poor receivers because they don’t receive others’ transmissions at all
levels.
The preoccupation with content and motives prevents their getting very close to other people because
this preoccupation prevents them from making contact with others' feelings.Clear reception is difficult
when people are transmitting messages in a variety of modes, clarity of communication is lost.
Facilitation - When interpersonal communication between two people occurs in a third party’s
presence, that third party can exert a strong influence as a help or hindrance. Third parties can be
"facilitators" and assist both the transmitter and receiver to achieve clearer communication. They can
stop the communication especially when there is a conflict. They can divert or distract the
communication.
for example, by changing the subject or by taking over the transmitter's role. Or they can restrict their
role to spectator and hinder the communication; a passive audience may add to the frustration, anxiety,
or embarrassment of awkward communication.
Facilitators can be an invaluable, help facilitate communication between individuals and among
groups.The facilitator function is shared by all members in fully functioning groups.
Interpersonal Dynamics
"Interpersonal dynamics" refers to the way in which a person's body language, facial expression and
other nonverbal mannerisms support a verbal message in one-on-one, or interpersonal, communication.
Key Topics of InterpersonalDynamics
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
ASSERTIVENESS
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

9. 1. Transactional Analysis (TA)
TA is a method of understanding behavior in interpersonal dynamics, for determining how
people interact.When we interact, behavior can be:
 Passive - Use self-limiting qualifying expressions without stating their position / needs
 Aggressive - State their position / needs while violating the rights of others using “you-
messages” and absolutes
 Assertive - State their position / needs without violating the rights of others.Performance is
greater with this behavior.
Types of transactions:
Complementary Transactions - Occur when the sender of the message gets the intended response from
the receiver. Generally result in more effective communication
Crossed Transactions - Occur when the sender of a message does not get the expected response from
the receiver.These result in surprise, disappointment, and hurt feelings for the sender of the message
Ulterior Transactions - Occur when the words seem to be coming from one ego state, but in reality the
words or behaviors are coming from another.Sometimes when people don’t know what they want or
how to ask for it in a direct way, they resort to ulterior transactions.Best to avoid ulterior transactions
because they tend to waste time
2. Assertiveness
 The process of expressing thoughts and feelings while asking for what one wants in an
appropriate way
 Is becoming more global
 Generally the most productive behavior
 Usually the most effective method of getting what you want while not taking advantage of
others
 Being assertive can create a win-win situation
3. Conflict management
Communications problems or conflicts arise for three primary reasons:
 We fail to make our expectations known to other parties
 We fail to find out the expectations of other parties
 We assume that the other parties have the same expectations that we have
Conflict Management Styles
Forcing Conflict Style: User attempts to resolve conflict by using aggressive behavior
Avoiding Conflict Style: User attempts to passively ignore the conflict rather than resolve it
Accommodating Conflict
Style:
User attempts to resolve conflict by passively giving in to the other
party

10. Compromising Conflict
Style:
User attempts to resolve the conflict through assertive give-and-
take concessions
Collaborating Conflict Style: User assertively attempts to jointly resolve the conflict with the
best solution agreeable to all parties. The problem-solving style
Group dynamics
Group dynamics is a system of behaviours and psychological processes occurring within a social
group (intragroup dynamics), or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The study of group
dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in
society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new
ideas and technologies.
Intragroup dynamics (also referred to as in-group, within-group, or commonly just ‘group dynamics’)
are the underlying processes that give rise to a set of norms, roles, relations, and common goals that
characterize a particular social group.
Examples of groups include religious, political, military, and environmental groups, sports teams,
work groups, and therapy groups. Amongst the members of a group, there is a state of
interdependence, through which the behaviours, attitudes, opinions, and experiences of each member
are collectively influenced by the other group members. .
The dynamics of a particular group depend on how one defines the boundaries of the group.
Intergroup dynamics refers to the behavioral and psychological relationship between two or more
groups. This includes perceptions, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors towards one’s own group, as well
as those towards another group.
In some cases, intergroup dynamics is prosocial, positive, and beneficial (for example, when multiple
research teams work together to accomplish a task or goal).
In other cases, intergroup dynamics can create conflict. For example, Fischer & Ferlie found initially
positive dynamics between a clinical institution and its external authorities dramatically changed to a
'hot' and intractable conflict when authorities interfered with its embedded clinical model.
Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis theory
Transactional Analysis is one of the most accessible theories of modern psychology. Transactional
Analysis was founded by Eric Berne, and the famous 'parent adult child' theory is still being developed
today. Transactional Analysis has wide applications in clinical, therapeutic, organizational and
personal development, encompassing communications, management, personality, relationships and
behaviour. Whether you're in business, a parent, a social worker or interested in personal development,
Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis theories, and those of his followers, will enrich your dealings with
people, and your understanding of yourself.

11. Earlytransactional analysistheory and model
 In the 1950's Eric Berne began to develop his theories of Transactional Analysis. He said that
verbal communication, particularly face to face, is at the centre of human social relationships
and psychoanalysis.
 His starting-point was that when two people encounter each other, one of them will speak to
the other. This he called the Transaction Stimulus. The reaction from the other person he called
the Transaction Response.
 The person sending the Stimulus is called the Agent. The person who responds is called the
Respondent.
 Transactional Analysis became the method of examining the transaction wherein: 'I do
something to you, and you do something back'.
 Berne also said that each person is made up of three alter ego states:
a. Parent
b. Adult
c. Child
 These terms have different definitions than in normal language.
Parent - This is our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from
when we were young. We were conditioned by our real parents, teachers, older people, next door
neighbours, aunts and uncles. Our Parent is made up of a huge number of hidden and overt recorded
playbacks. Typically embodied by phrases and attitudes starting with 'how to', 'under no
circumstances', 'always' and 'never forget', 'don't lie, cheat, steal', etc, etc. Our parent is formed by
external events and influences upon us as we grow through early childhood. We can change it, but this
is easier said than done.
Child - Our internal reaction and feelings to external events form the 'Child'. This is the seeing,
hearing, feeling, and emotional body of data within each of us. When anger or despair dominates
reason, the Child is in control. Like our Parent we can change it, but it is no easier.
Adult - Our 'Adult' is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves, based on received data.
The adult in us begins to form at around ten months old, and is the means by which we keep our Parent
and Child under control. If we are to change our Parent or Child we must do so through our adult.
In other words:
Parent is our 'Taught' concept of life
Adult is our 'Thought' concept of life
Child is our 'Felt' concept of life
 At the core of Berne's theory is the rule that effective transactions (ie successful
communications) must be complementary. They must go back from the receiving ego state to
the sending ego state. For example, if the stimulus is Parent to Child, the response must be
Child to Parent, or the transaction is 'crossed', and there will be a problem between sender and
receiver.
 If a crossed transaction occurs, there is an ineffective communication. Worse still either or both
parties will be upset. In order for the relationship to continue smoothly the agent or the
respondent must rescue the situation with a complementary transaction.

12.  Here are some simple clues as to the ego state sending the signal. You will be able to see these
clearly in others, and in yourself:
Parent
Physical - angry or impatient body-language and expressions, finger-pointing, patronising gestures,
Verbal - always, never, for once and for all, judgmental words, critical words, patronising language,
posturing language.
Child
Physical - emotionally sad expressions, despair, temper tantrums, whining voice, rolling eyes,
shrugging shoulders, teasing, delight, laughter, speaking behind hand, raising hand to speak, squirming
and giggling.
Verbal - baby talk, I wish, I dunno, I want, I'm gonna, I don't care, oh no, not again, things never go
right for me, worst day of my life, bigger, biggest, best, many superlatives, words to impress.
Adult
Physical - attentive, interested, straight-forward, tilted head, non-threatening and non-threatened.
Verbal - why, what, how, who, where and when, how much, in what way, comparative expressions,
reasoned statements, true, false, probably, possibly, I think, I realise, I see, I believe, in my opinion.
 And remember, when you are trying to identify ego states: words are only part of the story.
To analyse a transaction you need to see and feel what is being said as well.
Only 7% of meaning is in the words spoken.
38% of meaning is paralinguistic (the way that the words are said).
55% is in facial expression.
 There is no general rule as to the effectiveness of any ego state in any given situation (some
people get results by being dictatorial (Parent to Child), or by having temper tantrums, (Child
to Parent), but for a balanced approach to life, Adult to Adult is generally recommended.
Transactional Analysis is effectively a language within a language; a language of true meaning, feeling
and motive. It can help you in every situation, firstly through being able to understand more clearly
what is going on, and secondly, by virtue of this knowledge, we give ourselves choices of what ego
states to adopt, which signals to send, and where to send them. This enables us to make the most of all
our communications and therefore create, develop and maintain better relationships.
Modern transactional analysis theory
Transactional Analysis is a theory which operates as each of the following:
 a theory of personality
 a model of communication
 a study of repetitive patterns of behaviour

13. Transactional Analysis developed significantly beyond these Berne's early theories, by Berne himself
until his death in 1970, and since then by his followers and many current writers and experts.
Significantly, the original three Parent Adult Child components were sub-divided to form a new seven
element model, principally during the 1980's by Wagner, Joines and Mountain. This established
Controlling and Nurturing aspects of the Parent mode, each with positive and negative aspects, and the
Adapted and Free aspects of the Child mode, again each with positive an negative aspects, which
essentially gives us the model to which most TA practitioners refer today:
parent
Parent is now commonly represented as a circle with four quadrants:
Nurturing - Nurturing (positive) and Spoiling (negative).
Controlling - Structuring (positive) and Critical (negative).
Adult remains as a single entity, representing an 'accounting' function or mode, which can draw on the
resources of both Parent and Child.
Child
Child is now commonly represented as circle with four quadrants:
Adapted - Co-operative (positive) and Compliant/Resistant (negative).
Free - Spontaneous (positive) and Immature (negative).
Where previously Transactional Analysis suggested that effective communications were
complementary (response echoing the path of the stimulus), and better still complementary adult to
adult, the modern interpretation suggests that effective communications and relationships are based on
complementary transactions to and from positive quadrants, and also, still, adult to adult. Stimulii and
responses can come from any (or some) of these seven ego states, to any or some of the respondent's
seven ego states.
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Winston.
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process and effects of communication (pp. 3–26). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
 Harper, Douglas. "communication". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
 Jump up^ Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Transaction Publishers.
 5.https://web.njit.edu/~lipuma/352comproc/comproc.html
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 http://www.managementstudyguide.com/components-of-communication-process.htm
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