1) The document discusses various concepts related to decision making and reasoning, including heuristics, biases, deductive and inductive reasoning, and syllogisms.
2) Key heuristics and biases discussed include availability, anchoring, framing effects, representativeness, and confirmation bias.
3) Deductive reasoning uses logical propositions and premises to reach certain conclusions, while inductive reasoning uses specific observations to derive probable conclusions.
4) Syllogisms are deductive arguments with two premises and a conclusion, and can take various forms like categorical and linear syllogisms.
The document discusses the self and self-presentation. It defines self-concept as our thoughts and beliefs about ourselves, and self-awareness as thinking about ourselves. Our self-concept and the groups we identify with influence how we present ourselves to others. We try to promote our most positive attributes through self-presentation. How we see ourselves depends on the social context and comparisons we make between ourselves and other individuals or groups.
The document discusses the cognitive process of judgment. It notes that judgment involves construing, estimating, and predicting unknown events based on limited prior knowledge. It provides examples of how heuristics like availability can introduce bias into judgments. The document then discusses how people apply judgment in their daily lives in contexts like meeting new people, making financial and life decisions, and using judgment in legal and religious systems. Finally, it notes that psychologists rely heavily on judgment to diagnose clients and make choices in their work.
Social cognition is a sub-topic of social psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations.
It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in our social interactions.
The way we think about others plays a major role in how we think, feel, and interact with the world around us.
The document discusses decision making processes and models. It covers:
1. Steps in systematic decision making including defining the problem, identifying alternatives, choosing a preferred course of action, and evaluating results.
2. Phases and stages of decision making processes including intelligence, design, choice activities, and identification, development, and selection phases.
3. Models of decision making including rational, behavioral, social, and Simon's normative models.
4. Techniques for group decision making and problem solving such as nominal group technique and Delphi technique.
The document discusses self and self-presentation. It begins by exploring how individuals develop a sense of self through self-differentiation, role-taking, and interactions with others. It then examines how identities are formed based on roles, social groups, and how the self is situated in different contexts. The document also analyzes how individuals enact identities through behaviors and choices. It discusses self-esteem and how people present themselves tactically to others through impression management both in everyday life and online.
Carl Jung expanded Freud's theory of the unconscious to include a collective unconscious shared among all humans. This collective unconscious contains archetypes - common patterns and symbols representing human experiences like heroes and mothers. Jung also described extraverted and introverted personality types, as well as types that make decisions rationally through thinking or feeling, and irrationally through sensation or intuition.
This document provides an overview of social psychology. It discusses how social psychology studies how individual behaviors and thoughts are influenced by others. Key topics covered include cognitive processes, environmental variables, biological factors, and cultural values that shape social behaviors. Research methods in social psychology like observation, surveys, correlation analysis, and experiments are explained. The role of theory in social psychology and important ethical issues around deception and informed consent in research are also summarized.
The document discusses the self and self-presentation. It defines self-concept as our thoughts and beliefs about ourselves, and self-awareness as thinking about ourselves. Our self-concept and the groups we identify with influence how we present ourselves to others. We try to promote our most positive attributes through self-presentation. How we see ourselves depends on the social context and comparisons we make between ourselves and other individuals or groups.
The document discusses the cognitive process of judgment. It notes that judgment involves construing, estimating, and predicting unknown events based on limited prior knowledge. It provides examples of how heuristics like availability can introduce bias into judgments. The document then discusses how people apply judgment in their daily lives in contexts like meeting new people, making financial and life decisions, and using judgment in legal and religious systems. Finally, it notes that psychologists rely heavily on judgment to diagnose clients and make choices in their work.
Social cognition is a sub-topic of social psychology that focuses on how people process, store, and apply information about other people and social situations.
It focuses on the role that cognitive processes play in our social interactions.
The way we think about others plays a major role in how we think, feel, and interact with the world around us.
The document discusses decision making processes and models. It covers:
1. Steps in systematic decision making including defining the problem, identifying alternatives, choosing a preferred course of action, and evaluating results.
2. Phases and stages of decision making processes including intelligence, design, choice activities, and identification, development, and selection phases.
3. Models of decision making including rational, behavioral, social, and Simon's normative models.
4. Techniques for group decision making and problem solving such as nominal group technique and Delphi technique.
The document discusses self and self-presentation. It begins by exploring how individuals develop a sense of self through self-differentiation, role-taking, and interactions with others. It then examines how identities are formed based on roles, social groups, and how the self is situated in different contexts. The document also analyzes how individuals enact identities through behaviors and choices. It discusses self-esteem and how people present themselves tactically to others through impression management both in everyday life and online.
Carl Jung expanded Freud's theory of the unconscious to include a collective unconscious shared among all humans. This collective unconscious contains archetypes - common patterns and symbols representing human experiences like heroes and mothers. Jung also described extraverted and introverted personality types, as well as types that make decisions rationally through thinking or feeling, and irrationally through sensation or intuition.
This document provides an overview of social psychology. It discusses how social psychology studies how individual behaviors and thoughts are influenced by others. Key topics covered include cognitive processes, environmental variables, biological factors, and cultural values that shape social behaviors. Research methods in social psychology like observation, surveys, correlation analysis, and experiments are explained. The role of theory in social psychology and important ethical issues around deception and informed consent in research are also summarized.
This document provides biographical information about Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). It discusses Ellis' childhood, education, early career focusing on writing, and eventual development of REBT. The summary is:
Ellis was born in 1913 in Pittsburgh and raised in New York. He had a difficult childhood but developed a passion for reading and problem-solving. After trying various careers including writing, he turned to psychotherapy and developed REBT which focuses on disputing irrational beliefs that cause emotional disturbances. REBT became his life's work and he published extensively on the topic until his death in 2007.
Creativity Test (TTCT Torrance, TCT-DP Jellen& Urban etc)Lily
The document discusses various tests and methods used to measure creativity, including drawings, stories, and verbal responses. It describes the Test for Creative Thinking-Drawing Production (TCT-DP), which presents participants with an incomplete drawing and evaluates their creative responses based on criteria like adding new elements, making connections, and breaking boundaries. It also discusses analyzing the stories participants write to describe their drawings, finding connections between narrative creativity and scores on the graphic TCT-DP test. The document provides examples of linear and non-linear story formats and creative components identified within stories.
Therapeutic goals assumptions and steps of psychoanalytic therapyGeetesh Kumar Singh
Psychoanalytic therapy is a type of treatment based upon the theories of Sigmund Freud, who is considered one of the forefathers of psychology and the founder of psychoanalysis. This therapy explores how the unconscious mind influences thoughts and behaviours, with the aim of offering insight and resolution to the person seeking therapy.
The document discusses cognitive models in abnormal psychology. It describes cognition as the internal processes of the mind like perception, attention, memory, and thinking. The cognitive model describes how a person's thoughts about a situation influence their emotional and behavioral reactions. Two examples of cognitive models discussed are REBT developed by Albert Ellis, which focuses on how faulty reasoning leads to depression/anxiety, and CBT developed by Aaron Beck, which focuses on automatic thoughts and assumptions. The document also discusses cognitive development theories by Piaget and Kohlberg, and social learning theories by Julian Rotter and Albert Bandura which examine how behavior is learned through social interaction and observation.
This presentation was designed for a class on Management Support Systems. The emphasis is on dynamic decisions and group decision making, rather than research involving described scenarios.
Social cognition involves how people think about themselves and the social world to make judgments and decisions. There are two types of thinking - automatic thinking which is quick and nonconscious, and controlled thinking which is deliberate and effortful. Schemas are mental structures that organize our knowledge about people and events. Schemas are useful but can also lead to biases as they influence what information we attend to and remember. Other cognitive shortcuts like heuristics and priming can also lead to errors in social cognition. Affect and cognition have a reciprocal relationship, as our feelings shape our thoughts and vice versa.
This document summarizes several major schools of thought in psychology including structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalytical theory, humanism, and cognitive psychology. It also discusses the nature and functions of educational psychology.
This Slide is very simple to understand the assessment, process of assessment..and it also provide help to understand differences between assessment, evolution and testing... for more information you can contact on email "asit.psy@gmail.com" thank you.
Analytical psychology Theories of Personality Carl JungGrace Bran
Carl Jung developed the concepts of the personal unconscious, collective unconscious, and archetypes. The psyche consists of the ego, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious. The collective unconscious contains archetypes - universal themes such as the mother, hero, and self. Jung described personality types as introverted/extraverted with thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting functions. His method of analysis included dream analysis, word association tests, and active imagination to understand a patient's unconscious and facilitate self-realization through integrating opposing forces. Critics argue Jung's concepts are difficult to empirically test and some concepts lack clarity due to ambiguity.
Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who developed theories about how social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, shape personality. She believed that people whose needs for love and affection are not satisfied in childhood develop basic anxiety and hostility towards their parents. Horney identified three neurotic strategies people use to cope: moving towards people, moving against people, and moving away from people. She argued that normal individuals flexibly use all three strategies, while neurotics rigidly adhere to just one.
Psychological tests are used to measure human behavior and can be categorized into projective tests and aptitude tests. Projective tests use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious motivations, with the Rorschach inkblot test being an example. Aptitude tests attempt to predict a person's ability to learn new skills through education and training, with components including verbal, numeric, and spatial reasoning. The SAT is an example of an aptitude test used to assess students' readiness for college-level work.
Carl Jung believed that dialogue between the conscious and unconscious mind enriches a person. He coined the term "individuation" to describe personal development through connecting the ego with the self. Jung also described psychological types of introversion and extraversion, and the four main psychological functions of thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. He proposed that beneath the personal unconscious lies the collective unconscious containing innate archetypes shared between all people.
Behavioral assessment focuses on interactions between behavior and environmental situations to effect change. It emphasizes direct observation of problematic behaviors, antecedents, and consequences to understand context and causes. The SORC model conceptualizes problems in terms of Stimulus, Organism, Response, and Consequence. Behavioral assessment methods include interviews, observations in natural and controlled settings using tools like checklists, self-monitoring, and role-playing. Reliability and validity depend on factors like behavior complexity, observer training, content and construct validity, and reactivity.
Aaron Beck developed cognitive therapy, which emphasizes recognizing and changing negative thoughts and maladaptive beliefs. The theoretical assumptions of cognitive therapy are that people's internal communications can be accessed through introspection, clients' beliefs have personal meanings that can be discovered by the client rather than interpreted by the therapist. Basic principles of cognitive therapy include addressing arbitrary inferences, selective abstractions, overgeneralization, magnification and minimization, personalization, labeling and mislabeling, and dichotomous thinking. Effective cognitive therapists establish empathy and a therapeutic alliance while using cognitive and behavioral strategies through Socratic questioning to guide clients in self-discovery and change.
Ethics, a very important part of psychological research which play major role in the conduction of psychological research it's about the moral values and social norms which applies to all Researchers and there are a comprehensive guidelines about ethics given by American Psychological Association 2013 listed in this presentation.
Humanistic psychology carl rogers november 2011pworth01
Carl Rogers developed humanistic psychology as an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which he saw as too limiting or negative. His client-centered therapy, now called person-centered therapy, rejected the medical model where the therapist is the expert. Instead, he believed unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence between a person's real and ideal self were necessary conditions for growth. This allowed people to reach their full potential as a "fully functioning person" through their actualizing tendency in a way that was optimistic and healing. While broad, his focus on relationships and subjective experience was influential in moving psychology to a more positive perspective.
George Kelly - Personal Construct Theory- Princy HannahPRINCYHANNAHA
George Kelly was an American psychologist known for developing the personal construct theory of personality. Some key points about Kelly:
- He was born in 1905 in Kansas and earned degrees from Park College and University of Kansas, receiving his PhD in 1931.
- During World War II, he worked as an aviation psychologist and later became a professor at Ohio State University, where he developed his cognitive theory of personality.
- Kelly's personal construct theory proposes that personality arises from the constructs through which people interpret events, and that these constructs can change over time based on new experiences. Individuals actively test constructs against reality.
Thinking is the process of careful reasoning to solve problems. It involves using symbols, images, and concepts to mentally work through solutions. Thinking occurs on different levels from basic perceptual thinking using senses and past experiences, to more advanced conceptual thinking. It is influenced by many factors like motivation, intelligence, knowledge, and time limitations. The development of strong thinking skills is important for children's cognitive development.
The document provides an overview of psychological research methods. It defines research as systematic inquiry aimed at understanding human behavior and mental processes. Various research methods are described, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs. Key aspects of the research process like developing hypotheses, collecting both qualitative and quantitative data, ensuring reliability and validity, and addressing ethical considerations are summarized.
Inductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions that are suggested but not definitely proven by the evidence or premises. It relies on observations to determine what is probably true rather than definitely true. The strength of an inductive argument depends on factors like the representativeness of observations, number of observations, and quality of evidence. People use heuristics and past experiences to guide decisions and behaviors through inductive reasoning without realizing it. However, heuristics can lead to biases like the availability heuristic and illusory correlations that form inaccurate stereotypes.
The document discusses decision making and problem solving. It covers defining problems, gathering relevant information to analyze problems, and generating and selecting alternatives. The problem solving process involves defining the problem, collecting information and measures, analyzing the problem, generating alternatives, selecting alternatives, and deciding on and implementing a solution. Cause and effect diagrams like fishbone diagrams can be used to identify and analyze the root causes of problems. Collecting the right information through questions is important for fully understanding problems before attempting to solve them.
This document discusses critical thinking and decision making in nursing. It begins by defining critical thinking as the process of applying reasoning to guide beliefs and actions. Key concepts of critical thinking discussed include interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and self-regulation. Common pitfalls and biases are also outlined. The document then discusses decision making, noting that nurses must make many rapid decisions. A case example illustrates the decision challenges nurses may face. The conclusion emphasizes that nurses are key decision makers expected to use evidence in their judgments.
This document provides biographical information about Albert Ellis, the founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). It discusses Ellis' childhood, education, early career focusing on writing, and eventual development of REBT. The summary is:
Ellis was born in 1913 in Pittsburgh and raised in New York. He had a difficult childhood but developed a passion for reading and problem-solving. After trying various careers including writing, he turned to psychotherapy and developed REBT which focuses on disputing irrational beliefs that cause emotional disturbances. REBT became his life's work and he published extensively on the topic until his death in 2007.
Creativity Test (TTCT Torrance, TCT-DP Jellen& Urban etc)Lily
The document discusses various tests and methods used to measure creativity, including drawings, stories, and verbal responses. It describes the Test for Creative Thinking-Drawing Production (TCT-DP), which presents participants with an incomplete drawing and evaluates their creative responses based on criteria like adding new elements, making connections, and breaking boundaries. It also discusses analyzing the stories participants write to describe their drawings, finding connections between narrative creativity and scores on the graphic TCT-DP test. The document provides examples of linear and non-linear story formats and creative components identified within stories.
Therapeutic goals assumptions and steps of psychoanalytic therapyGeetesh Kumar Singh
Psychoanalytic therapy is a type of treatment based upon the theories of Sigmund Freud, who is considered one of the forefathers of psychology and the founder of psychoanalysis. This therapy explores how the unconscious mind influences thoughts and behaviours, with the aim of offering insight and resolution to the person seeking therapy.
The document discusses cognitive models in abnormal psychology. It describes cognition as the internal processes of the mind like perception, attention, memory, and thinking. The cognitive model describes how a person's thoughts about a situation influence their emotional and behavioral reactions. Two examples of cognitive models discussed are REBT developed by Albert Ellis, which focuses on how faulty reasoning leads to depression/anxiety, and CBT developed by Aaron Beck, which focuses on automatic thoughts and assumptions. The document also discusses cognitive development theories by Piaget and Kohlberg, and social learning theories by Julian Rotter and Albert Bandura which examine how behavior is learned through social interaction and observation.
This presentation was designed for a class on Management Support Systems. The emphasis is on dynamic decisions and group decision making, rather than research involving described scenarios.
Social cognition involves how people think about themselves and the social world to make judgments and decisions. There are two types of thinking - automatic thinking which is quick and nonconscious, and controlled thinking which is deliberate and effortful. Schemas are mental structures that organize our knowledge about people and events. Schemas are useful but can also lead to biases as they influence what information we attend to and remember. Other cognitive shortcuts like heuristics and priming can also lead to errors in social cognition. Affect and cognition have a reciprocal relationship, as our feelings shape our thoughts and vice versa.
This document summarizes several major schools of thought in psychology including structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalytical theory, humanism, and cognitive psychology. It also discusses the nature and functions of educational psychology.
This Slide is very simple to understand the assessment, process of assessment..and it also provide help to understand differences between assessment, evolution and testing... for more information you can contact on email "asit.psy@gmail.com" thank you.
Analytical psychology Theories of Personality Carl JungGrace Bran
Carl Jung developed the concepts of the personal unconscious, collective unconscious, and archetypes. The psyche consists of the ego, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious. The collective unconscious contains archetypes - universal themes such as the mother, hero, and self. Jung described personality types as introverted/extraverted with thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting functions. His method of analysis included dream analysis, word association tests, and active imagination to understand a patient's unconscious and facilitate self-realization through integrating opposing forces. Critics argue Jung's concepts are difficult to empirically test and some concepts lack clarity due to ambiguity.
Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who developed theories about how social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, shape personality. She believed that people whose needs for love and affection are not satisfied in childhood develop basic anxiety and hostility towards their parents. Horney identified three neurotic strategies people use to cope: moving towards people, moving against people, and moving away from people. She argued that normal individuals flexibly use all three strategies, while neurotics rigidly adhere to just one.
Psychological tests are used to measure human behavior and can be categorized into projective tests and aptitude tests. Projective tests use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious motivations, with the Rorschach inkblot test being an example. Aptitude tests attempt to predict a person's ability to learn new skills through education and training, with components including verbal, numeric, and spatial reasoning. The SAT is an example of an aptitude test used to assess students' readiness for college-level work.
Carl Jung believed that dialogue between the conscious and unconscious mind enriches a person. He coined the term "individuation" to describe personal development through connecting the ego with the self. Jung also described psychological types of introversion and extraversion, and the four main psychological functions of thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. He proposed that beneath the personal unconscious lies the collective unconscious containing innate archetypes shared between all people.
Behavioral assessment focuses on interactions between behavior and environmental situations to effect change. It emphasizes direct observation of problematic behaviors, antecedents, and consequences to understand context and causes. The SORC model conceptualizes problems in terms of Stimulus, Organism, Response, and Consequence. Behavioral assessment methods include interviews, observations in natural and controlled settings using tools like checklists, self-monitoring, and role-playing. Reliability and validity depend on factors like behavior complexity, observer training, content and construct validity, and reactivity.
Aaron Beck developed cognitive therapy, which emphasizes recognizing and changing negative thoughts and maladaptive beliefs. The theoretical assumptions of cognitive therapy are that people's internal communications can be accessed through introspection, clients' beliefs have personal meanings that can be discovered by the client rather than interpreted by the therapist. Basic principles of cognitive therapy include addressing arbitrary inferences, selective abstractions, overgeneralization, magnification and minimization, personalization, labeling and mislabeling, and dichotomous thinking. Effective cognitive therapists establish empathy and a therapeutic alliance while using cognitive and behavioral strategies through Socratic questioning to guide clients in self-discovery and change.
Ethics, a very important part of psychological research which play major role in the conduction of psychological research it's about the moral values and social norms which applies to all Researchers and there are a comprehensive guidelines about ethics given by American Psychological Association 2013 listed in this presentation.
Humanistic psychology carl rogers november 2011pworth01
Carl Rogers developed humanistic psychology as an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which he saw as too limiting or negative. His client-centered therapy, now called person-centered therapy, rejected the medical model where the therapist is the expert. Instead, he believed unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence between a person's real and ideal self were necessary conditions for growth. This allowed people to reach their full potential as a "fully functioning person" through their actualizing tendency in a way that was optimistic and healing. While broad, his focus on relationships and subjective experience was influential in moving psychology to a more positive perspective.
George Kelly - Personal Construct Theory- Princy HannahPRINCYHANNAHA
George Kelly was an American psychologist known for developing the personal construct theory of personality. Some key points about Kelly:
- He was born in 1905 in Kansas and earned degrees from Park College and University of Kansas, receiving his PhD in 1931.
- During World War II, he worked as an aviation psychologist and later became a professor at Ohio State University, where he developed his cognitive theory of personality.
- Kelly's personal construct theory proposes that personality arises from the constructs through which people interpret events, and that these constructs can change over time based on new experiences. Individuals actively test constructs against reality.
Thinking is the process of careful reasoning to solve problems. It involves using symbols, images, and concepts to mentally work through solutions. Thinking occurs on different levels from basic perceptual thinking using senses and past experiences, to more advanced conceptual thinking. It is influenced by many factors like motivation, intelligence, knowledge, and time limitations. The development of strong thinking skills is important for children's cognitive development.
The document provides an overview of psychological research methods. It defines research as systematic inquiry aimed at understanding human behavior and mental processes. Various research methods are described, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs. Key aspects of the research process like developing hypotheses, collecting both qualitative and quantitative data, ensuring reliability and validity, and addressing ethical considerations are summarized.
Inductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions that are suggested but not definitely proven by the evidence or premises. It relies on observations to determine what is probably true rather than definitely true. The strength of an inductive argument depends on factors like the representativeness of observations, number of observations, and quality of evidence. People use heuristics and past experiences to guide decisions and behaviors through inductive reasoning without realizing it. However, heuristics can lead to biases like the availability heuristic and illusory correlations that form inaccurate stereotypes.
The document discusses decision making and problem solving. It covers defining problems, gathering relevant information to analyze problems, and generating and selecting alternatives. The problem solving process involves defining the problem, collecting information and measures, analyzing the problem, generating alternatives, selecting alternatives, and deciding on and implementing a solution. Cause and effect diagrams like fishbone diagrams can be used to identify and analyze the root causes of problems. Collecting the right information through questions is important for fully understanding problems before attempting to solve them.
This document discusses critical thinking and decision making in nursing. It begins by defining critical thinking as the process of applying reasoning to guide beliefs and actions. Key concepts of critical thinking discussed include interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and self-regulation. Common pitfalls and biases are also outlined. The document then discusses decision making, noting that nurses must make many rapid decisions. A case example illustrates the decision challenges nurses may face. The conclusion emphasizes that nurses are key decision makers expected to use evidence in their judgments.
This document provides an overview of a philosophy course on fundamentals of philosophy being offered in Hong Kong. The 3-sentence summary is:
The document outlines a course on fundamentals of philosophy to be taught in Hong Kong in spring 2004, including the instructor's contact information and an overview of the first three lecture topics - an introduction to what philosophy is, Socrates' method of questioning to pursue wisdom, and the three basic laws of thought in logic. It provides background on the course and previews the key concepts and approaches that will be covered.
Analogical arguments claim that a conclusion is probable based on similarities between two or more things. To evaluate the strength of an analogical argument, six criteria are used: 1) the number of similar entities or cases in the premises, 2) the variety of those cases, 3) the number of similar respects between the cases, 4) the relevance of those respects, 5) any dissimilarities between the cases, and 6) how modest the conclusion's claim is based on the premises. Arguments are stronger when they have more entities, a variety of cases, many relevant similar respects, few dissimilarities, and more modest conclusions.
psychological effects of terrorism on youth...! Anu Sherazi
Terrorism has significant psychological effects on youth in Pakistan. It causes fear, trauma, depression and other psychological disorders in young people. Many youth feel depressed and lack attention to their studies because they constantly worry "Am I next?" being a victim of terrorism. The effects of terrorism can be so severe that some youth develop mental health issues or are pushed to consider participating in terrorist activities themselves. Terrorism is a major cause of destructive tendencies in Pakistani youth and threatens their mental well-being and the country's future.
Introduction to Decision-Making & ErrorRussell James
This document introduces a class on behavioral economics and consumer decision-making. It discusses how people are subject to predictable errors in judgment and decision-making, even in areas we think we are good at like numbers, letters, colors, and shapes. It explains that if we make persistent mistakes in these simple domains, we are also likely subject to errors when making complex consumer and life decisions. The class will explore why these errors occur consistently and how to reduce them to make better choices.
This document provides an overview of social psychology. It discusses key topics like social cognition, attitudes, persuasion, group influence, relationships, altruism, aggression, and prejudice. It outlines the theoretical frameworks of social psychology including evolutionary, social learning, socio-cultural, social cognitive, and phenomenological perspectives. It also examines how behavior is influenced by both personal and situational factors and how social psychology research integrates various topics.
This document provides an overview of research methods in social psychology. It discusses why social psychologists conduct research, such as to empirically test folk theories and uncover unexpected influences on behavior. It describes how researchers operationalize abstract concepts and test ideas through both correlational and experimental designs. Key concepts explained include measurement, manipulation of variables, random assignment, and the difference between correlation and causation. Statistical correlations provide information on the strength and direction of relationships but cannot prove that one variable causes another.
This document discusses terrorism, including defining it as the unlawful use of force against people or property to intimidate governments or populations for political goals. It outlines some terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda, causes of terrorism like religious extremism and poverty, and examples of terrorist attacks over the years such as in Mumbai, London, and Delhi. These attacks have social, political, and economic impacts. Prevention measures discussed include education, security, and unity. Government acts against terrorism are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of attribution theory and explanatory styles in psychology. It discusses how people make causal attributions to explain behaviors, either internally based on personal factors or externally based on environmental factors. Explanatory style refers to a person's typical way of making these attributions along the dimensions of internal vs. external, stable vs. unstable, and global vs. specific. The document provides examples of how to analyze attributions using these dimensions and defines a pessimistic explanatory style.
This document discusses decision making and critical thinking. It provides definitions of decision making as identifying and choosing alternatives based on preferences and values. Decision making aims to reduce uncertainty about options to allow for reasonable choice. Factors that influence decision making are also outlined, including information, options, consequences, and time. The document then discusses individual decision making styles and how groups make decisions, manage conflict, and feel about outcomes. Critical thinking is presented as an important process for decision making. Readers are tasked with applying critical thinking using Bloom's Taxonomy to reflect on a video and how its concepts may influence their career decisions and generate questions.
This document summarizes 10 major terrorist attacks that have occurred in India. It describes attacks in Pune (2010), Mumbai (2008), Bangalore (2008), Jaipur (2008), Mumbai train bombings (2006), Malegaon (2006), Varanasi (2006), Ayodhya (2005), Delhi (2005), and the Indian Parliament (2001). The attacks targeted civilians in public places like markets, train stations and temples, and killed hundreds of people total. Many of the attacks have been attributed to Pakistani terrorist groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba. Mumbai has been a frequent target, with the 2008 attacks being the deadliest terrorist incident in India that left over 150 dead.
Series of terror attack on india reasons with effectsTejasvita25
This document discusses terrorism in India, including causes and major terrorist attacks. It notes that terrorism in India has both external and internal sources. Major causes mentioned include lack of security, poverty, lack of education, unemployment, disunity among people, and politics. Three major terrorist attacks discussed are the 1993 Mumbai bombings that killed 257, the 2006 Mumbai train bombings that killed 209, and the 2008 Mumbai attacks that killed 172. The document provides suggestions for reducing terrorism such as increasing education and awareness, taking stricter actions against terrorism, improving security, and reducing corruption.
Heuristics are simple rules or mental shortcuts that allow humans to make decisions quickly and with limited information. The document discusses several types of heuristics including: the gaze heuristic, recognition heuristic, social heuristics like "do what the majority do", and heuristics based on reasons like take the best and tallying. It also covers cognitive biases like hindsight bias. Overall, the document examines how heuristics demonstrate bounded rationality and how humans use fast and frugal mental shortcuts to make decisions in an efficient manner.
How to scale up, out or down in Windows AzureCommon Sense
Juan De Abreu gave a presentation on scaling applications in Windows Azure. He discussed scaling up by increasing VM resources versus scaling out by adding more instances. Caching approaches like client-side caching and static content generation were presented to improve performance and scalability. The document also covered handling variable load through maintaining excess capacity or dynamically adding/removing instances using metrics and rules-based automation.
The document discusses the goals and impacts of terrorism through examples like the September 11 attacks and 2002 Bali bombings. It led to significant loss of life and economic impacts like losses to the insurance and airline industries totaling $40 billion. The attacks also caused social impacts like fear, suspicion, and loss of tourism income in Bali of 50%. The document advocates for unity and vigilance against terrorism through total defense and international cooperation.
While making judgments and decisions about the world around us, we like to think that we are Objective,Logical, and
Capable of taking in and evaluating all the information that is available to us.
The reality is that our judgments and decisions are often
riddled with errors and influenced by a wide variety of biases.
The human brain is both remarkable and powerful, but certainly subject to limitations.
One type of fundamental limitation on human thinking is known as a cognitive bias.
Testing United 2021: The hidden logic of thinking for testers.pdfNITHIN S.S
Ability to think deeper is one of the most valuable skills that every tester needs, and yet it is rarely taught in universities and even in workplaces. In today’s world, problems are becoming more complex with the addition of new technologies, tools and approaches. To deal with these challenges and remain competitive we should start to think about thinking and build a framework that helps us to face any testing challenges thoughtfully and require a new toolset or framework for thinking. At its core, it must be a framework that helps with problem-solving & provides a structure for our solutioning process. For this, learning and understanding how to spot gaps in our thinking process play a significant role.
As explained by Daniel Kahneman in the book “Thinking, Fast and Slow”, our brains have two thinking systems, ‘System 1’ which is faster and intuitive and the slower and contemplative ‘System 2’. The interaction of the two systems often helps us to get things right or fail at times. Understanding the way we use these systems to think helps us in better decision making and problem-solving. Connecting all the dots around thinking, I have figured out some hidden logics that we still need to explore and analyse. This talk will get you thinking about how you naturally think and unleash its full potential to be a skilled tester by leveraging those hidden logics & approaches.
Key takeaways:
Explains the importance/role of different thinking types in testers
Improve your ability to think, analyse and interpret using those thinking types
Guides how to generate a unique art of thinking(Incorporate thinking with metacognitive skills) for testers
Learn to spot “gaps” in the thinking process
Role of design thinking & Empathic thinking in the craft of testing
The document discusses various models of decision making and reasoning, including classical decision theory, heuristics and biases, deductive reasoning through conditional statements and syllogisms, and inductive reasoning using observations to draw probable but not certain conclusions. Judgment is influenced by heuristics like availability and representativeness, and people tend to overestimate their abilities.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by distressing, intrusive thoughts and related compulsions that attempt to neutralize obsessions. Common obsessions include fears of contamination, harming others, mistakes, and social acceptance. Common compulsions include cleaning, checking, arranging, collecting, counting, and tapping. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), specifically exposure and response prevention (ERP), is an effective treatment that aims to change maladaptive thoughts and behaviors by exposing patients to their fears while preventing compulsions.
This document provides an introduction to scenario planning and discusses its importance for dealing with uncertainty. It outlines some key concepts:
1. Scenario planning allows organizations to think about multiple possible futures rather than relying on single predictions, helping them adapt to changing environments.
2. Cognitive biases like overconfidence and confirmation bias can prevent organizations from detecting signals of change or updating their thinking. Scenario planning addresses this by challenging assumptions.
3. Scenarios are used to embed signals about the future into organizations' mental models of the world in order to draw conclusions and take action, facilitating learning.
4. Constructing and discussing scenarios explicitly challenges conventional wisdom and helps integrate alternative views of the future into decision making.
This document discusses various cognitive biases that can affect human judgment, decision-making, and memory. It describes biases in four main areas: cognitive biases in general, decision-making and behavioral biases, biases in probability and belief, and social biases. Many biases result from mental shortcuts or rules of thumb, while others stem from motivational factors or natural limitations in human information processing. Understanding cognitive biases can help improve judgment and decision-making.
This document discusses various cognitive biases that can affect human judgment, decision-making, and memory. It describes biases in four main areas: cognitive biases in general, decision-making and behavioral biases, biases in probability and belief, and social biases. Many biases result from mental shortcuts or rules of thumb, while others stem from motivational factors or natural limitations in human information processing. Understanding cognitive biases can help improve judgment and decision-making.
Before deciding on a course of action, prudent managers evaluate the situation confronting them. Unfortunately, some managers are cautious to a fault – taking costly steps to defend against unlikely outcomes. Others are overconfident – underestimating the range of potential outcomes. And still, others are highly impressionable – allowing memorable events in the past to dictate their view of what might be possible now.
These are just three of the well-documented psychological traps that afflict most managers at some point, assert authors John S. Hammond, Ralph L. Keeney, and Howard Raiffa in their 1998 article. Still, more pitfalls distort reasoning ability or cater to our own biases. Examples of the latter include the tendencies to stick with the status quo, to look for evidence confirming one’s preferences, and to throw good money after bad because it’s hard to admit making a mistake.
Luckily, techniques exist to overcome each one of these problems. For instance, since the way a problem is posed can influence how you think about it, try to reframe the question in various ways and ask yourself how your thinking might change for each version. Even if we can’t eradicate the distortions ingrained in the way our minds work, we can build tests like this into our decision-making processes to improve the quality of the choices we make.
OB-6 Perception and decision making.pdfSindhuDawani1
This document discusses perception, decision making, and biases that influence both. It begins by defining perception as how we organize and interpret sensory impressions to understand our environment. Our perceptions are shaped by factors in the situation, the perceiver, and the target. When perceiving others, we attribute behaviors to internal or external causes using attribution theory. The document then discusses shortcuts in perception like selective perception, halo effect, stereotyping, and self-fulfilling prophecies. It applies these concepts to employment interviews, performance expectations, and evaluations. The document outlines rational decision making processes but notes actual decision making involves biases. It discusses biases, errors, and how to reduce their influence. Finally, it explores how personality, gender, mental ability,
This document provides an overview of critical thinking and the nursing process. It defines critical thinking as an organized cognitive process used to carefully examine one's own and others' thinking. Critical thinking aims to make evidence-based judgments rather than rely on assumptions. The nursing process involves assessing clients, diagnosing actual or potential health problems, planning and implementing interventions, and evaluating outcomes. Effective use of critical thinking and the nursing process requires gathering and analyzing client data, considering various options, and making well-reasoned clinical decisions.
The document discusses perception and individual decision making, outlining factors that influence perception like attribution theory and biases, and examining assumptions and steps in rational decision making compared to how decisions are actually made, which involves bounded rationality and common biases. Intuition is also discussed as an unconscious decision making process based on distilled experience that is more useful under conditions of high uncertainty.
Summary Perception and Individual Decision MakingDeni Triyanto
This document discusses perception and individual decision making. It defines perception as how individuals interpret their sensory impressions to understand their environment. Perception is influenced by factors in the perceiver, target, and situation. Attribution theory is explained as how we judge behaviors as internally or externally caused based on distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency. There is a link between perception and decision making, as perception affects how information is interpreted and evaluated in the decision process. Common biases that influence decision making are also outlined, along with individual differences and organizational constraints.
- Perception involves how individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions to make meaning of their environment. It is influenced by both internal and external factors.
- Attribution theory examines how people make causal explanations for behaviors, and people tend to underestimate external influences and overestimate internal influences (fundamental attribution error).
- There are frequently used shortcuts in judging others like stereotyping, selective perception, and the halo effect that can lead to errors.
Does your team share these characteristics?
• Strong group cohesion
• Close personal connections
• Self-policing
• Robust privacy policy
• High organizational esteem
• Internal locus
• Flexible metrics
• Subjective operational assessment
• Altruistic Intentions
If you answered yes to several of these characteristics, you may have inadvertently created an ideal breeding ground for dishonest behavior according to Dan Ariely, Professor of Psychology and Behavioral Economics at Duke University. I have spent many hours agape, aghast, agog, appalled, astonished, astounded, awe-struck, awed, baffled, and befuddled, listening to his New York Times bestselling book The Honest Truth About Dishonesty. In study after study Ariely uses his favorite “matrix task” of finding pairs of numbers that add up to ten while introducing alternative X factors to test our assumptions about cheating.
Rather than being a simple cost benefit analysis, it appears dishonesty is more like a contagious disease than a personal proclivity. These findings are proving personally prophetic as we agree to disagree with one of our non-profit boards who, despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary, believe their governing skills to be beyond reproach. This kind of overly optimistic self-assessment, according to professor Ariely (whose TED talks have been watch 2.8 million times) is not an exception to predictable behavior but more the rule. When comparing the many opportunities for undisclosed indiscretion, it is doing so for an altruistic cause that tops the scale for infectious rationalization literally doubling what he calls the fudge factor.
If you suspect your board meetings could use a little less fudge, here are ten factors that will add more proof to your team’s performance:
Mix things up; add new team members disconnected personally and professionally.
Start each meeting and include in each document a commitment to absolute honesty in all interactions.
Introduce an external auditing influence to independently assess decision making and budgeting compliance.
Insist on transparency in all communications. Create a centralized communications area where all significant correspondence is searchable and available to all stakeholders.
Benchmark your standards against peers within your industry as well as those “Positive Deviants” who, with the same resources, find ways to do things better.
Remember who you are there to represent. If you are a board member your first responsibility is to represent the members’ views and not your own.
Define, monitor, display, share and live by well defined metrics. Opinions oscillate, metrics motivate.
Be wary of your illusions. None of us is capable of understanding anything in its entirety.
Altruistic intentions are not a get-out-of-jail card for ill advised actions.
Enlist experts. Volunteers must be very careful not to direct activities, commit revenues
This chapter discusses perception and individual decision making. It defines perception as how individuals organize and interpret sensory impressions to make meaning of their environment. People's behavior is based on their perceptions, not objective reality. The chapter also examines factors that influence perception, such as attribution theory and biases. It then discusses the rational decision making model and how decisions are actually made, noting limitations like bounded rationality. Common biases in decision making are explored, along with ways to potentially improve the decision making process.
Description of Critical Thinking?
Critical Thinking & Achievement
Main Purpose of College Experience
Critical Thinking Concepts
What is Thinking?
Biology of Thinking
Stages of Development of the Thinking Process
What does “not thinking critically” look like?
What does Critical Thinking Look Like?
Why is critical thinking important?
What are the Major Concepts in Critical Thinking?
A Critical Thinking Problem Solving Model
Problem Solving Content /Component
Focus on solutions & not on problems
Reality Testing of Possible Solutions to Problem
Strategies for teaching skills related to Critical Thinking
skills related to critical thinking
Thinking is a mental process which produces thoughts. Reasoning is a mental p...VandanaGaur15
Thinking and reasoning are two mental processes between which a key difference can be discerned. Thinking encapsulates a large arena of thought production that can be either conscious or unconscious. On the contrary, reasoning is limited to the conscious production of mental thought with the use of logic. As you can see from the very definitions themselves, unlike reasoning, thinking is not always logical, nor is it conscious.Thoughts allow people to organize their ideas and feelings. It can also be considered as one of the basic factors that underlie human behavior. When we think it helps us to make sense of the work around us and interpret it in our own way. In this sense, thinking is extremely beneficial to people to deal with day to day occurrences and realize their ambitions. According to psychologists, thinking can be both a conscious process and sometimes an unconscious process as well. Of the various branches of psychology, cognitive psychology focuses the most on thinking or thought processes. Cognitive psychologists study how the thought process changes as individuals reach different stages in life from childhood to adulthood.
LaneThinking about Thinking Using the Elements of Thoug.docxsmile790243
The document discusses critical thinking skills and how to apply them when evaluating arguments and information. It defines critical thinking as "thinking about thinking" which involves self-consciously monitoring one's thinking process, evaluating the strategy used, and what was learned. Some key critical thinking steps outlined are identifying an argument's premises and conclusions, acknowledging uncertainties, distinguishing facts from values, recognizing assumptions, and determining source reliability. Universal intellectual standards for evaluating reasoning are also defined, including clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, and logic.
Perception and individual decision making are influenced by various factors. Perception depends on the perceiver's characteristics and attitudes, the target being perceived, and the situation. Decision making involves identifying problems, developing alternatives, and making choices that can be biased by perceptual distortions. Common biases include overconfidence, anchoring, confirmation bias, availability bias, and escalation of commitment. Managers must consider how perception and biases can influence evaluation, rewards, regulations, precedents, and decision making.
MGT2023 TOPIC 6 PERCEPTION AND DECISION MAKING.pptxAtimTim
This document outlines key concepts related to perception, decision making, biases, and group decision making techniques. It discusses how perception can differ between individuals and lists factors that influence attribution. Biases like the self-serving bias and heuristics are described as well as how they can distort judgment. The rational decision making model is outlined as six steps, and bounded rationality and intuitive decision making are contrasted. Common biases that influence decisions are identified. Strengths and weaknesses of group decision making are contrasted, and techniques like groupthink, group shift, and interacting groups vs brainstorming are described.
This document discusses different types of violence including physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, spiritual, and cultural violence. It also discusses the causes of violence such as early learning experiences, ignorance of developmental timetables, economic stress, lack of social support, substance abuse, and mental disorders. The effects of violence include lack of trust, feelings of worthlessness, trouble regulating emotions, and difficulties in school. Laws and agencies that address domestic violence are also outlined, including protection orders, the Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004, and where to report incidents of violence.
Our field covers all areas related to work including staffing organizations, managing people, assessment, work motivation, work-life balance, and fairness. Changes in jobs, organizations, and employment relationships will impact our progress in these areas. We need to anticipate changes in organizational structures, jobs, and worker expectations and help organizations prepare. The evolution of work presents challenges for research on new job forms, skill requirements, motivation, remote work, and talent identification. It also provides opportunities for practice to guide organizations on performance within new structures, selection, expectations, evaluation, and compensation systems.
This document discusses virtual communities and how they compare to physical communities. It makes three key points:
1) Virtual communities have become more common as technology has advanced, but still lack the physical human interaction and relationships formed in person.
2) While virtual communities can fulfill some needs, the author believes needs are not fully met and physical human interactions are still important, especially in Filipino culture.
3) Different types of members exist in virtual communities, similar to physical communities, but virtual interactions are limited to the cognitive realm rather than physical relationships.
The nature of work is constantly changing and becoming more flexible. Jobs are being defined more broadly and changing to meet business needs. Relationships between organizations and employees are also changing, with more flexible and temporary contracts. As the nature of work changes, the demographic makeup of the workforce is changing as well. Industrial-organizational psychologists have an important role in understanding these changes and helping shape the future of work. They can provide guidance to organizations on maintaining performance in new structures, selecting employees for changing jobs, and developing fair compensation systems that are flexible. Understanding how the changing context of work impacts organizational behavior will help apply valid psychological research effectively in organizations.
This document summarizes research on object recognition memory in monkeys and rats with medial temporal lobe lesions. It finds that monkeys and humans with bilateral medial temporal lobe lesions have deficits in delayed nonmatching-to-sample tests, showing difficulties consolidating short-term memories into long-term memories. However, lesions in monkeys also affected the rhinal cortex, so the specific role of the hippocampus was unclear. Tests with rats, where lesions could be restricted to the hippocampus, revealed that the rhinal cortex, not the hippocampus or amygdala, is important for object recognition memory. The hippocampus plays a key role in spatial memory, as shown by deficits in maze tests after hippocampal lesions in rats.
The document summarizes the author's experience with their service learning project as a tutor. Some key points:
1) The author had initial expectations of being able to effectively teach their tutees and reinforce lessons, but faced challenges with student attendance and engagement that did not always allow lessons to go as planned.
2) Through tutoring, the author gained skills in teaching methods, lesson planning, and developed relationships with their tutees to better understand their perspectives and challenges.
3) The experience helped the author learn about themselves, including realizing their own capabilities and capacity for patience and understanding of others. They were able to exceed their own expectations from the project.
our report in BioPsych.. this ppt is incomplete since the first part of the topic was not included here.
i have uploaded our documents and presentations because i don't want to have it deleted.. these files can still be usefull to me and to others. i hope this can help..
book: BioPsych
author: J.P. Pinel
Erich Fromm (1900-1980) was a German social psychologist and philosopher. He received his PhD in sociology at age 22 and was a member of the Frankfurt School of Critical Theory. In 1933, he fled Nazi Germany for the US. He later taught in Mexico and Switzerland. Fromm made significant contributions to personality theory and emphasized how social factors influence development. He is known forEscape from Freedom (1941) and The Art of Loving (1956). Fromm identified different character orientations and mechanisms for escaping freedom and responsibility. He stressed the importance of relatedness, identity, and using one's creative powers productively.
2. are used to select from among choices
or to evaluate opportunities.
Addresses various forms of reasoning
3. reflect the strengths of an economic
perspective. One such strength is the
ease of developing and using
mathematical models for human
behavior.
4. Alternative Model
› makes greater allowance for the
psychological make-up of each individual
decision maker.
Subjective expected utility theory
› the goal of human action is to seek pleasure
and avoid pain.
Subjective Probability
› which is a calculation based on the
individuals estimates of likelihood rather than
an objective computations
5. considered options one by one and then
we select an option as we find one that
is satisfactory or just good enough to
meet our minimum level of
acceptability.
Bounded rationality
› we are rational, but within the limits
6. eliminate alternatives focusing on
aspects of the various options.
Condition probability
• is the likelihood of one event , given
another.
7. can be applied to a broad range of
behaviors and environments.
development of a field of study that is
based on decision making in natural
environments.
8. Working as a group can enhance the
effectiveness of decision making, just as
it can enhance the effectiveness of
problem solving.
Benefits of Group Decision Making:
the group benefits from the expertise of
each of the members
increase in resources and ideas
improved group memory over individual
memory
9. In a small group, they have open
communication and members share a
common mind set, identify with the
group, and agree on acceptable group
behavior.
In a group made up of diverse
members, they are in the position to make
better decisions.
10. One of them is groupthink.
Groupthink - a phenomena
characterized by premature decision
making that is generally the result of
group members attempting to avoid
conflict; frequently results in suboptimum
decision making that avoids
nontraditional ideas.
12. 1) An isolated, cohesive, and
homogeneous group is empowered to
make decisions
2) Objective and impartial leadership is
absent, within the group or outside it
3) High levels of stress impinge on the
group decision-making process
13. 1) In closed-mindedness, the group is not open to
alternative ideas
2) In rationalization, the group goes to great lengths to
justify both the process and the product of its decision
making
3) In the squelching of dissent, thos who disagree are
ignored, criticized, or even ostracized
4) In the formation of a "mindguard" for the group, one
person appoints himself or herself the keeper of the
group norm and ensures that people stay in line
5) In feeling invulnerable, the group believes that it must
be right, given the intelligence of the members and
the information available to them
6) In feeling unanimous, members believe that everyone
unanimously shares the opinions expressed by the
group
14. The leader of a group should encourage
constructive criticism, be impartial, and
ensure that members seek input from
people outside the group.
The group should form subgroups that
meet separately to consider alternative
solutions to a single problem.
15. It is important that the leader should take
responsibility for preventing spurious
conformity to a group norm.
16. People make decisions based on biases
and heuristics in their thinking. These
mental shortcuts lighten the cognitive
load of making decisions, but they also
allow for a much greater chance of
error.
17. In representativeness, we judge the
probability of an uncertain event
according to:
1) how obviously it is similar to or
representative of the population from
which it is derived
2) the degree to which it reflects the salient
features of the process by which it is
generated
18. Example:
Gambler's fallacy - a mistaken belief that
the probability of a given random
event, such as winning or losing at a
game of chance, is influenced by
previous random events.
Hot hand or Streak Shooter
19. One reason that people misguidedly use
the representativeness heuristic is
because they fail to understand the
concept of base rates.
Base rate - refers to the prevalence of an
event or characteristic within its
population of events or characteristics.
20. Availability heuristic - we make judgments
on the basis of how easily we can call to
mind what we perceive as relevant
instances of a phenomenon.
Conjunction fallacy - an individual gives a
higher estimate for a subset of events than
for the larger set of events containing the
given subset.
Inclusion fallacy - a variant of the
conjunction fallacy in which the individual
judges a greater likelihood that every
member of an inclusive category has a
particular characteristic than that every
member of a subset of the inclusive
category has that characteristic.
21. Anchoring-and-adjustment heuristic - a
heuristic related to availability by which people
adjust their evaltuations of things by means of
certain reference points called end-anchors
Framing effects - the way that the options are
presented influences the selection of an option
Illusory correlation - another judgment
phenomenon in which we tend to see
particular events or particular attributes and
categories as going together because we are
predisposed to do so.
22. Overconfidence - an individual's
overevaluation of her or his own
skills, knowledge or judgment.
Sunk-cost fallacy -- the decision to
continue to invest in something simply
because one has invested in it before and
one hopes to recover one's investment.
Opportunity costs - the prices paid for
availing oneself of certain opportunities
Hindsight bias - when we look at a situation
retrospectively, we believe we easily can
see all the signs and events leading up to a
particular outcome.
23. Heuristics do not always lead us astray.
Sometimes, they are amazingly simple
ways of drawing sound conclusions.
Take the best - a simple heuristic which
can be amazingly effective in decision
situations.
24. The prefrontal cortex, and particularly the
anterior cingulate cortex, is active during
decision-making process. The amount of
gain associated with a decision also affects
the amount of activation observed in the
parietal region.
During decision making, the anterior
cingulate cortex is involved in consideration
of potential rewards. This area of the brain is
onvolved in the comparison and weighing
of possible solutions.
25. a related kind of thinking. It is the
process of drawing conclusions from
principles and from evidence. In
reasoning, we move from what is
already known to infer a new conclusion
or to evaluate a proposed conclusion.
26. 1) Deductive reasoning - process of reasoning from one
or more general statements regarding what is known
to reach a logically certain conclusion. It often
involves reasoning from one or more general
statements regarding what is known to a specific
application of the general statement.
2) Inductive reasoning - process of reasoning from
specific facts or observations to reach a likely
conclusion that may explain the facts. In inductive
reasoning, we never can reach a logically certain
conclusion. We only can reach a particularly well-
founded or probable conclusion.
27. is based on logical propositions.
• Proposition - basically an
assertion, which may either be true or
false.
• Premises - propositions about which
arguments are made.
28. one of the primary types of deductive
reasoning. It is in which the reasoner
must draw a conclusion based on an if-
then proposition.
The conditional if-then proposition states
that if antecedent condition p is met,
then consequent event q follows.
29. modus ponens - "If p, then q. p.
Therefore, q."
- the reasoner affirms the antecedent
modus tollens - "If p, then q. Not q.
Therefore, not p.
- the reasoner denies the consequent
30. Type of argument Conditional Existing Inference
proposition condition
p→q P q
modus ponens If you are a You are a Therefore, you
mother, then mother have a child
Deductively valid you have a child
Inferences
p→q ¬ q you do ¬ p therefore,
modus tollens If you are a not have a you are not a
mother, then child. mother
you have a child
p→q ¬p ¬q
denying the If you are a You are not a Therefore, you
antecedent mother, then mother do not have
you have a child child
Deductive fallacies
p→q q p
affirming the If you are a You have a Therefore, you
consequent mother, then child are a mother
you have a child
31. Proposition based on what Test Type of reasoning
shows on the face of the Card
p q Based on
A given card has a Does the card have an even modus ponens
consonant on one side number on the other side?
¬q ¬p Based on
A given card does not Does the card not have a modus tollens
have an even number on consonant on the other side?
one side. That is, a given That is, does the card have a
card has an odd number vowel on the other side?
on one side
¬p ¬q Based on
A given card does not Does the card not have an denying the
have a consonant on one even number on the other antecedents
side. That is, a given card side? That is, does the card
has a vowel on one side. have an odd number on the
other side
q p Based on
A given card has an even Does the card have a affirming the
number on side consonant on the other side? consequent
32. Pragmatic reasoning schemas - general
organizing principles or rules related to
particular kinds of goals, such as
permissions, obligations, or causations.
These schemas are sometimes referred
to as pragmatic rules.
33. Syllogisms
› Are deductive arguments that involve
drawing conclusions from two premises.
› All syllogisms comprise a major premise, a
minor premise, and a conclusion.
› Sometimes conclusions mat be that no
logical conclusion may be reached based
on two given premises.
34. In a syllogism, each of the two premises
describes a particular relationship
between two items and at least one of
the items is common to both premises.
First term of the major premise is the
subject. The common term is the middle
term. Second term is the predicate.
Relationship among terms is linear.
Quantitative or qualitative comparison.
35. You are smarter than your best friend.
Your best friend is smarter than your roommate.
Which of you is the smartest?
What logical deduction can you reach based on the premises of
this linear syllogism? Is deductive validity the same as truth?
First term Linear Second term
(Item) Relationship (Item)
Premise A You Are smarter Your best friend
than
Premise B Your best friend Is smarter than Your roommate
Conclusion: Who - Is/are the
is smartest? smartest of the
three
36. When deductively valid, its conclusion
follows logically from the premises.
How do people solve linear syllogisms?
› Are solved spatially, through mental
representations of linear continua.
› Using a semantic model involving
propositional representations.
―you are smarter than your roommate‖
[smarter (you, your roommate)]
› A combination of spatial and propositional
representations
37. The premises state something about the
category memberships of the terms.
Common term as the middle term. First
and second terms in each premise are
linked through the categorical
membership of the terms.
38. All cognitive psychologists are pianists.
All pianists are athletes.
Therefore, all cognitive psychologists are athletes.
39. Type of Form of Description Examples Reversibility
premise premise
The premise positively All males are
(affirmatively) states men.
Universal All A are B that all members of the
All men are
affirmative males Nonreversible
first class (universal) are
member of the second
All A are B.
class All B are A.
No A are B. The premise states that No men No men are
none of the members of females =
Universal (alternative:
the first class are
are No females are
negative All A are not B) members of the second females men.
class Reversible
Na A are B =
No B are A.
The premise states that Some Some F are women
only some of the Some women are F
Particular Some A are members of the first
females Nonreversible
affirmative B class are members of are women Some A are B
the second class Some B are A
The premise states that Some Some F are not
some members of the women
Particular Some A are first class are not
women are Nonreversible
negative not B members of the second not Some A are not B
class females Some B are not A
40. Atmosphere bias
› If there is at least one negative in the
premises, people will prefer a negative solution.
› If there is at least one particular in the
premises, people will prefer a particular solution.
Conversion of premises
› Terms of a given premise are reversed.
› ―If A, then B into ―If B, then A‖
› People often believed that the reversed form is
as valid as the original but don’t realize that the
statements are not equivalent.
41. Using a semantic (meaning-based) process
based on mental models
Rule-based (―syntactic‖) processes
› Mental Model- is an internal representation of
information that corresponds analogously with
whatever is being represented.
Types of representations of Syllogisms
Circle diagrams
Truth table
42. Heuristics in syllogistic reasoning include
overextension – in these errors, we overextend
the use of strategies that work in some syllogisms to
syllogisms in which the strategies fail us.
Foreclosure effects – when we fail to consider
all the possibilities before reaching a conclusion.
Premise phrasing effects – may lead us to leap
to a conclusion without adequately reflecting on
the deductive validity of the syllogism.
43. Confirmation Bias
› We seek confirmation rather than
disconfirmation of what we already believe.
› Can be detrimental and dangerous in some
circumstances.
› Explicit attention to the premises seems more
likely to lead to valid inferences. Explicit
attention to irrelevant information more often
leads to inferences based on prior beliefs
regarding the believability of the conclusion.
44. Based on our observations
› Reaching any logically certain conclusion is
not possible.
As the future has not happened, how can we
predict what it will bring?
Given possible alternative futures, how do we
know which one to predict?
For example, in the number series 2,4,6,?,
45. Inductive reasoning
› Involves reasoning where there is no
logically certain conclusion. Often it involves
reasoning from specific facts or observations
to a general conclusion that may explain the
facts.
› Basis of empirical method.
Why people use inductive reasoning?
Helps them to become increasingly able to
make sense out of the great variability in their
environment.
It helps them to predict events in their
environment, thereby reducing their uncertainty.
46. Casual Inferences – how people make
judgments about whether something causes
something else.
John Stuart Mill – proposed a set of canons- widely
accepted heuristic principles on which people
may base their judgments.
o Method of agreement
o Method of difference
47. The office staff of the company There was a drastic
Company 1 organized and joined a union. drop in the value of
The company’s major product the company’s stock
was under suspicion as a
carcinogen.
The office staff did not There was a drastic
Company 2 organize and join a union. The drop in the value of
company’s major product the company’s stock
was under suspicion as a
carcinogen.
Illegal campaign contributions There was no drastic
Company 3 were traced to the company’s drop in the value of
manager’s. the company’s the company’s stock.
major product was not under
suspicion as a carcinogen.
48. Common Errors of Inductive Reasoning
Law of large numbers
Ignore base-rate information
Demonstrate confirmation bias, which leads
to errors such as illusory correlations
Frequently make mistakes when attempting
to determine casualty based on
correlational evidence alone.
Failing to recognize that many phenomena
have multiple causes.
Discounting error – we stop searching fro
additional alternative or contributing causes
49. Confirmation bias can have a major effect
on our everyday lives.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy
Relationship between covariation
(correlation) information and casual
inferences
50. uses bottom-up strategies and top-down
strategies
uses information from their sensory
experiences and based on what they
already know
51. Analogy
› is a cognitive process of
transferring information or meaning from a
particular subject (the analogue or source)
to another particular subject (the
target), and a linguistic expression
corresponding to such a process.
› also refer to the relation between the source
and the target themselves, which is
often, though not necessarily, a similarity
52. Analogical reasoning seeks to identify
specific sets of similar and dissimilar
characteristics, in search of some unique
combination of characteristics that can
then be used to define distinctive
properties of each set.
a means of transfer—applying
knowledge acquired in one context in
new situations.
53. Inductive reasoning is considered a basic
component of thinking, and it is one of
the most broadly studied procedures of
cognition.
The inductive method, or teaching by
examples, is one of the oldest methods of
instruction.
In addition, induction, or rather its role in
generating scientific knowledge, is one of
the most enduring problems of philosophy.
54. 2 complementary systems of reasoning
1. Associative System
- involves mental operations based on
observed similarities and temporal contiguities
- can lead to speedy responses that are
highly sensitive to patterns and to general
tendencies
- can detect similarities between observed
patterns and patterns stored in memory
55. 2. Rule-Based System
- involves manipulation based on the
relations among symbols.
- requires more deliberate, painstaking
procedures for reaching conclusions
- carefully analyze relevant features of
the available date, based on rules stored
in memory
56. Reasoning involves brain areas associated
with working memory, such as the basal
ganglia.
Basal Ganglia – involved in a variety of
functions, including cognitive and learning
Moral reasoning in persons who show
antisocial behaviors indicative of poor
moral reasoning, malfunctions were noted
in several areas within the prefrontal cortex,
including the dorsal and ventral regions
57. Impairments in the
amygdala, hippocampus, angular
gyrus, anterior cingulated, temporal
cortex were also observed.
Anterior Cingulated is involved in
decision making and the hippocampus is
involved in the working memory.
Therefore, it is to be expected that
malfunctions in theses areas would result
in deficiencies in reasoning.