Polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy
The first issue that an egg and a sperm of any organism type face in successfully producing an embryo is the possibility of polyspermy. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by multiple sperm, and the results of such unions are lethal.
If multiple sperm fertilize an egg, the embryo inherits multiple paternal centrioles. This causes competition for extra chromosomes and results in the disruption of the creation of the cleavage furrow, thus causing the zygote to die. As an important model organism in the study of fertilization and embryonic development, polyspermy in sea urchins has been studied in detail. The sea urchin’s methods of polyspermy prevention have been broken down into two main pathways. These two primary pathways are known as the fast block and the slow block to polyspermy
After the sperm’s receptors come into contact with the egg’s jelly layer and the acrosomal enzymes are released and break down the jelly layer, the sperm head comes into contact with the vitelline and plasma membranes of the egg. When the two plasma membranes contact one another, signals in the egg are initiated.
First, Na+ channels in the egg open, allowing Na+ to flood into the egg. This causes a depolarization of the egg from it’s normal resting potential of -70 mV.
While depolarization is occurring, the remainder of the jelly layer is dissolving. With the dissolution of the jelly layer and the depolarization of the plasma membrane, the first block to preventing fertilization by multiple sperm is put into place.
These two simple changes are part of the first block to polyspermy, known as the fast block. Within 1/10th of a second of contact, the fast block t
Polyspermy describes an egg that has been fertilized by more than one sperm. Diploid organisms normally contain two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. The cell resulting from polyspermy
The first issue that an egg and a sperm of any organism type face in successfully producing an embryo is the possibility of polyspermy. Polyspermy is the fertilization of an egg by multiple sperm, and the results of such unions are lethal.
If multiple sperm fertilize an egg, the embryo inherits multiple paternal centrioles. This causes competition for extra chromosomes and results in the disruption of the creation of the cleavage furrow, thus causing the zygote to die. As an important model organism in the study of fertilization and embryonic development, polyspermy in sea urchins has been studied in detail. The sea urchin’s methods of polyspermy prevention have been broken down into two main pathways. These two primary pathways are known as the fast block and the slow block to polyspermy
After the sperm’s receptors come into contact with the egg’s jelly layer and the acrosomal enzymes are released and break down the jelly layer, the sperm head comes into contact with the vitelline and plasma membranes of the egg. When the two plasma membranes contact one another, signals in the egg are initiated.
First, Na+ channels in the egg open, allowing Na+ to flood into the egg. This causes a depolarization of the egg from it’s normal resting potential of -70 mV.
While depolarization is occurring, the remainder of the jelly layer is dissolving. With the dissolution of the jelly layer and the depolarization of the plasma membrane, the first block to preventing fertilization by multiple sperm is put into place.
These two simple changes are part of the first block to polyspermy, known as the fast block. Within 1/10th of a second of contact, the fast block t
INTRODUCTION
DEFINATION
GAMETES
STRUCTURE OF GAMETES
SPERM
OVUM
RECOGNITION OF EGG AND SPERM
CAPACITATION
ACROSOME REACTION
SPECIES-SPECIFIC RECOGNITION
GAMETE BINDING AND RECOGNITION
GAMETE FUSION
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY
ACTIVATION OF GAMETE METABOLISM
FUSION OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL
SIGNIFICANCE OF FERTILIZATION
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
A chart showing the fate of each part of an early embryo, in a particular blastula stage is called fate maps. It is done because the correct interpretation of gastrulation is impossible without the knowledge of the position which are the presumptive germinal layers (Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm) occupy in blastula.
Fate mapping is a method used in developmental biology to study the embryonic origin of various adult tissues and structures. The "fate" of each cell or group of cells is mapped onto the embryo, showing which parts of the embryo will develop into which tissue. When carried out at single-cell resolution, this process is called cell lineage tracing. It is also used to trace the development of tumors.
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
INTRODUCTION
DEFINATION
GAMETES
STRUCTURE OF GAMETES
SPERM
OVUM
RECOGNITION OF EGG AND SPERM
CAPACITATION
ACROSOME REACTION
SPECIES-SPECIFIC RECOGNITION
GAMETE BINDING AND RECOGNITION
GAMETE FUSION
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY
ACTIVATION OF GAMETE METABOLISM
FUSION OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL
SIGNIFICANCE OF FERTILIZATION
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
A chart showing the fate of each part of an early embryo, in a particular blastula stage is called fate maps. It is done because the correct interpretation of gastrulation is impossible without the knowledge of the position which are the presumptive germinal layers (Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm) occupy in blastula.
Fate mapping is a method used in developmental biology to study the embryonic origin of various adult tissues and structures. The "fate" of each cell or group of cells is mapped onto the embryo, showing which parts of the embryo will develop into which tissue. When carried out at single-cell resolution, this process is called cell lineage tracing. It is also used to trace the development of tumors.
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
Chap 5 Cleavage. it's types and patternsSaadHumayun7
Cell division during the early stages of the embryo’s development after fertilisation is referred to as cleavage in embryology. Zygotes of several species possess rapid cell cycle progression without considerable overall growth, resulting in a group of cells of identical size as the initial zygote. The diverse cells produced by cleavage are known as blastomeres, and they group together to form a solid mass known as the morula. The development of the blastula, or the blastocyst in animals, indicates the termination of cleavage.
The mitotic division begins as the zygote travels through the isthmus of the oviduct, termed cleavage, towards the uterus and produces 2, 4, 8, and 16 daughter cells (blastomeres). A morula is an embryo that has 8 to 16 blastomeres. As it progresses into the uterus, the morula continues dividing and develops into a blastocyst.
The transformation from fertilisation to cleavage results from the activation of a mitosis-promoting factor (MPF).Cleavage of Zygote
Human zygote cleavage begins inside the fallopian tube. It is holoblastic, dividing the zygote fully into blastomeres or daughter cells.
After fertilisation, the first cleavage occurs about 24 to 30 hours later. It creates two blastomeres by longitudinally dividing the zygote (one mildly larger than the other).
The second cleavage takes place forty hours later.
After fertilisation, there is a third cleavage approximately 72 hours later. During these early cleavages, the young embryo progresses down the fallopian tube towards the uterus.
The embryo enters the uterus at the end of the fourth day. It is referred to as morula and resembles a mulberry. There are 32 cells in this solid morula. The cleavage is radial and of an indeterminate kind in human zygotes.
Cell Cleavage Mechanism
The zygote begins cleaving once fertilisation occurs, and a new organism starts to develop. Cleavage furrow refers to the area where cleavage begins.Two coordinated mechanisms combine to produce cleavage.
Karyokinesis, or the division of the nucleus during mitosis, is the first of these cyclic mechanisms. The mechanical force behind this division is the mitotic spindle, which has microtubules made of tubulin (a protein that comprises the sperm flagellum).
Cytokinesis, or cell division, is the second phase. An actin-based contractile ring of microfilaments serves as the mechanical force behind cytokinesis.
The initiation of zygotic transcription and the termination of cleavage coincides. This transitional stage in non-mammals is known as the mid-blastula transition and is regulated by the nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio.
Types of Cleavage
During the cleavage period, there is a significant degree of reorganisation, and the cytoplasmic contents primarily determine the types of cleavage.
Determinate Cleavage
Determinate cleavage, also known as mosaic cleavage, is a type of cleavage based on the potency of blastomeres where each blastomere has a predetermined developmental fate and is not qualita
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3. 1. DROSOPHILA
• Pattern of Cleavage :
• Superficial Cleavage – In this type of Cleavage large mass
of Yolk confines cleavage to the cytoplasmic rim of the Egg.
• Karyokinesis without Cytokinesis .
• Rapid rate of division is accomplished by eliminating the G
(Gap) phases of Cell cycle.
4. • Cleavage in Drosophila egg creates Syncytium (a single
cell with many nuclei residing in a common cytoplasm. )
• The zygote nucleus undergoes several mitotic divisions
within central portion of egg.
• 256 nuclei produced by a series of 8 nuclear divisions
averaging 8 minute for each.
5. • During 9th division 5 Nuclei reach
the surface of posterior pole of
embryo and so they are called as
Pole cells that give rise to gametes
in adults.
• At 10th cycle other Nuclei migrate
towards cortex (periphery) of egg
where the rate of mitosis is slow.
• During this stages of nuclear
divsions the embryo is known as
“Syncytial Blastoderm”,since there
is absence of cytoplasmic
membrane other than egg itself.
• During this divisions although cell
membrane is common but
cytoplasm is not uniform therefore
the Nuclei and their associated
cytoplasmic islands are called as
Energids.
6. Following division cycle 13, the oocyte
plasma membrane folds inward between
nuclei ,partitioning off each somatic
nucleus into single cell. This process
creates Cellular Blastoderm in which all
cells arranged in single layer around
yolky core of the egg.
The formation of the cellular blastoderm
involves a delicate interplay between
microtubules and microfilaments.
The first phase of blastoderm
cellularization is characterized by the
invagination of cell membranes and their
underlying actin microfilament network
into the regions between the nuclei to
form furrow canals.
In Drosophila, the cellular blastoderm
consists of approximately 6000 cells and
is formed within 4 hours of fertilization.
7. 2. FROG
• Pattern of Cleavage:
• Radially symmetrical holoblastic cleavage .
• The amphibian egg contains moderate amount of Yolk
concentrated at Vegetal pole therefore 1st division starts at
animal pole and then slowly extends towards vegetal pole.
8. • While the 1st furrow is still cleaving the yolky vegetal hemisphere,
The 2nd cleavage has already started at the Right angle to the 1st and it
is also Meridionial.
• And the 3rd cleavage is Equatorial, but not exactly at Equator but
displaced towards animal pole due to yolky vegetal pole
• Now this divides the embryo into 4 small animal blastomeres(
Micromeres) and 4 large blastomeres (Macromeres) at vegetal pole.
9. • Despite of uneqaual sizes, the blastomeres continues to divide at the same rate
until 12th division. At this stage the embryo contains 16-64 cells this stage is
called as Morula.
• At the 128 cell stage , blastocoel becomes apparent, and embryo is considered
as Blastula.
Frog blastocoel serves two main
fuctions : I) It permits the migration of
cells during gastrulation .
II) It prevents the cells beneath it from
interacting prematurely with the cells
above it.
10. IMPORTANT FACTORES :
• Various cell adhesion molecules keep the cleaving blastomeres
together .
• Such as EP- Cadherin
• MBT- Mid Blastula Transition genes – require for the modification of
certain promoters and their associated Nucleosomes during
blastulation process.
• Transcription factor Veg T protein , formed in the Vegetal cytoplasm
from localized maternal mRNA, The cells contain VegT becomes the
Endoderm cells and then this cells begins secretion of factors to
induce the cells above them to form Mesoderm.
11. 3.CHICK
• Pattern of cleavage:
• Discoidal meroblastic cleavage
• Cleavage occurs only in the blastodisc ,which is about 2-3 mm in
diameter, at the Animal pole of the egg.
• The first 1st cleavage takes place centrally at the blastodisc , other
cleavages follow the pattern and create the single layered Blastoderm.
• So the early cleavage cells are continuous with one another and with the
yolk at their base.
• After this , vertical and equatorial cleavages divide the blastoderm in 5-6
cell layers thick.
12. I) 1st furrow is meridionial
;appears in the middle of the
blastodisc which produces two
blastomers Fig A .
II) 2nd furrow is also
meridonial but at right angle to
the first furrow Fig B.
III) 3rd cleavage creates 2
furrows , in the vertical
direction across second furrow
Fig C.
IV) 4th cleavage is different
than other cleavage patterns ,
the furrow is vertical but
appears to be circular and it
encircles the previous furrows .
This creates 8 central cells and
8 marginal cells Fig D.
V)cleavage after this are
irregular.
13. • In the later stages of cleavage , the cells get separated from yolk due
to the horizontal cleavage furrows.
• Therefore the space appears beneath the central cells which get
extends towards periphery as the horizontal cleavage extends
outward.
• As a result the epithelial layer in the central region of blastoderm
becomes thinner and transparent thus this region is called as Area
pellucida .
• And the peripheral part , with non delaminated yolky cells is called as
Area opaca because the blastoderm at this region seems to be opaque.
14. 4.MAMMALS :
• In the entire animal kingdom mammalian eggs are the slowest in
terms of cleavage.
• The first cleavage starts after 24 hours of fertilization .
• This 1st cleavage is Meridional creates two blastomeres as llke other
animals studied so far.
• But in the 2nd cleavage, one of two blastomers divide meridionally
and the other divides Equatorially this type of cleavage is known
Rotational cleavage.
• Another major difference is the number of cells increases not evenly
like 2,4,8 etc. but it increases by odd number due to difference in
division time.
HUMAN MOUSE
15. In mammalian embryos the
zygotic control genes get
activated during very early
stages of cleavage as in mouse
after 2-cell stage , and in
humans after 4 and 8 cell
stage.
Compaction: is the
phenomena takes place in
mammalian cleavage in
which approximately after
3rd cleavage , cell adhesion
proteins (E-Cadherins)get
expressed ,and the
blastomeres form a
compact ball of cells.
This creates 8 cell embryo
which divides to produce
16 cell morula.
16. The morula consist of small group of internal cells
surrounded by larger group of external cells the internal cells
are called as Inner Cell Mass (ICM) and external cells
becomes Trophoblast..
Cavitation is the process in which Trophoblast cells secrete
fluid into morula to create Blastocoel , as the blastocoel
expands the ICM becomes positioned on one side of ring of
trophoblast cells which results into the formation Blastula
known as Blastocyst.
17. REFERNCES:
• Gilbert SF. Developmental Biology. 9th edition.
Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2010.
• Lewis Wolpert, Rosa Beddington et al. Principes of
Development. 2nd edition.Oxford university press :
2002.
• NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of
Medicine, National Institutes of Health.