Chromosomal Variations, Continuous and Discontinuous Variations, Genotypic & Phenotypic Variations. Hardy-Weinberg law of random mating, Recombination technology
It also explains the main points for a variation.
This document discusses different types of structural chromosomal aberrations including deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. It defines each type of aberration and provides examples of how they occur. Deletions involve the loss of a chromosomal segment. Duplications double or repeat a segment. Inversions reverse the orientation of a segment. Translocations reorganize chromosomes through the transfer of segments between or within chromosomes. These structural changes can have effects ranging from infertility to genetic disorders and influence evolution by creating variation.
Structural Chromosomal aberrations (Change in Structure of Chromosome)Asad Afridi
ย
this presentation is about chromosomal aberration especially change in structure of chromosome. different types of structural chromosomal aberrations are also discussed. effects of different aberration are also included.
Cytological proof of crossing over
Stern's Experiment (Drosophila)
Stern's experiment to demonstrate cytological crossing over
Factors affecting Crossing over
Significance of crossing over in plant breeding
coincidence
Coefficient of Coincidence
Interference
Meiosis is a cell division process that produces gametes (sex cells) with half the number of chromosomes. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange DNA segments through a process called crossing over. Crossing over increases genetic diversity and helps ensure balanced distribution of chromosomes in gametes. It occurs during prophase I through the formation of chiasmata between nonsister chromatids. Crossing over plays an important role in evolution by allowing independent assortment of genetic variants on chromosomes.
Linkage and crossing over involve the exchange and recombination of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. Crossing over occurs during prophase I of meiosis through the breakage and rejoining of non-sister chromatids, producing new combinations of genes. It increases genetic variation and is important for evolution and the development of new species through natural selection. The frequency of crossing over is used to map the linear positions of genes on chromosomes.
chromosomal aberrations
Variation in chromosomal structure or number
changes in the number of sets of chromosomes (ploidy), changes in the number of individual chromosomes (somy), or changes in appearance of individual chromosomes throughย mutation-induced rearrangements. They can be associated withย genetic diseases or with species differences
Mujahid Hussain, Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan
This document discusses different types of structural chromosomal aberrations including deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. It defines each type of aberration and provides examples of how they occur. Deletions involve the loss of a chromosomal segment. Duplications double or repeat a segment. Inversions reverse the orientation of a segment. Translocations reorganize chromosomes through the transfer of segments between or within chromosomes. These structural changes can have effects ranging from infertility to genetic disorders and influence evolution by creating variation.
Structural Chromosomal aberrations (Change in Structure of Chromosome)Asad Afridi
ย
this presentation is about chromosomal aberration especially change in structure of chromosome. different types of structural chromosomal aberrations are also discussed. effects of different aberration are also included.
Cytological proof of crossing over
Stern's Experiment (Drosophila)
Stern's experiment to demonstrate cytological crossing over
Factors affecting Crossing over
Significance of crossing over in plant breeding
coincidence
Coefficient of Coincidence
Interference
Meiosis is a cell division process that produces gametes (sex cells) with half the number of chromosomes. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange DNA segments through a process called crossing over. Crossing over increases genetic diversity and helps ensure balanced distribution of chromosomes in gametes. It occurs during prophase I through the formation of chiasmata between nonsister chromatids. Crossing over plays an important role in evolution by allowing independent assortment of genetic variants on chromosomes.
Linkage and crossing over involve the exchange and recombination of genetic material between homologous chromosomes. Crossing over occurs during prophase I of meiosis through the breakage and rejoining of non-sister chromatids, producing new combinations of genes. It increases genetic variation and is important for evolution and the development of new species through natural selection. The frequency of crossing over is used to map the linear positions of genes on chromosomes.
chromosomal aberrations
Variation in chromosomal structure or number
changes in the number of sets of chromosomes (ploidy), changes in the number of individual chromosomes (somy), or changes in appearance of individual chromosomes throughย mutation-induced rearrangements. They can be associated withย genetic diseases or with species differences
Mujahid Hussain, Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan
Crossing over was first discovered by Thomas Hunt Morgan. It occurs during meiosis-I and involves the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, resulting in recombinant chromosomes. The percentage of crossing over between two genes is directly proportional to the distance between them, with closer genes having a lower chance of crossing over than more distant genes. Crossing over contributes to genetic variation in offspring by recombining parental alleles on chromatids.
Recombination model and cytological basis of crossing overAlex Harley
ย
This study evaluated the effect of expressing multiple heterologous recombinases on increasing homologous recombination in tobacco plants. The recombinases RecA, RecG, RuvC, Rad51, Rad52 and DMC1 were expressed individually and in combinations in tobacco plants containing a recombination substrate. Expression of DMC1 alone produced the greatest stimulation of homologous recombination, increasing recombination frequency up to 1000-fold. Expression of other recombinases also increased recombination 2 to 380-fold. Increasing homologous recombination could improve the efficiency of gene targeting for plant biotechnology applications using CRISPR/Cas.
ANEUPLOIDY (Introduction, classification, merits and demerits)Bushra Hafeez
ย
Aneuploidy is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which numbers of chromosomes are abnormal.Generally, the aneuploid chromosome set differs from wild type by only one or a small number of chromosomes. It is a genetic disorder causes birth defects. It is the second major category of chromosome mutations in which chromosome number is abnormal.
Aneuploid nomenclature is based on the number of copies of the specific chromosome in the aneuploid state. For example, the aneuploid condition 2nโโโ1 is called monosomic (meaning โone chromosomeโ) because only one copy of some specific chromosome is present instead of the usual two found in its diploid progenitor. The aneuploid 2nโ+โ1 is called trisomic,2nโโโ2 is nullisomic, and nโ+โ1 is disomic.
Chromosomal aberrations, utilization of aneuploids, chimeras and role of allo...GauravRajSinhVaghela
ย
This document provides information about chromosomal aberrations. It begins by defining chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations. There are two main types of chromosomal aberrations: structural and numerical. Structural aberrations include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations which alter chromosome structure but not number. Specific structural aberrations like deletions are then defined and examples of diseases caused by deletions are provided. The document also discusses duplication, inversion and provides examples.
1. Linkage refers to the tendency of genes located on the same chromosome to be inherited together. Linked genes remain in their original combination during inheritance.
2. Crossing over occurs during meiosis when exchange of genetic material occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes, resulting in new combinations of genes.
3. Recombination produces new variations in offspring through the formation of recombinant chromosomes from crossing over. This contributes to genetic variation and evolution.
Chromosomes replicate and pair up during meiosis. Crossing over can lead to an exchange of DNA between homologous non-sister chromatids. This produces new combinations of alleles and chiasmata may form at points of exchange. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate and random orientation leads to independent assortment. Sister chromatids then separate in meiosis II, resulting in four haploid cells each with a unique combination of alleles.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique. The term chromosome comes from the Greek words for color (chroma) and body (soma). In the present slide, the structural chromosomal aberration is discussed. The diseases caused due to such aberrations are also explained. Hope you all enjoy. Feel free to comment if have any further clarifications.
This document discusses linkage and crossing over of genes. It explains that genes located on the same chromosome are linked, and the closer they are, the stronger the linkage. Crossing over occurs during meiosis and leads to recombination of genes from homologous chromosomes. Linkage maps can be constructed by observing the frequency of crossing over between linked gene loci. These maps show the linear order and genetic distances between genes on chromosomes.
Genetic linkage occurs when alleles located near each other on a chromosome tend to be inherited together during meiosis. Genes located closer together are less likely to undergo chromosomal crossover and become separated, making them more likely to be inherited together. The closer two genes are on a chromosome, the lower the chance that a crossover will occur between them. Crossing over during meiosis can lead to new combinations of genes on homologous chromosomes. The frequency of crossing over depends on the distance between genes, with genes farther apart having a greater chance of crossover.
Crossing over occurs during meiosis when homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material, forming recombinant chromosomes. It increases genetic variation in offspring by producing chromosomes with recombined alleles that are different from the parents. Crossing over involves two reciprocal breaks and reunions between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. This leads to offspring that have different combinations of genes and alleles than their parents.
Genetic inheritance and chromosomal disordersRakesh Verma
ย
This document provides information about genetics, genetic inheritance, and chromosomal disorders. It defines key genetic terms like gene, allele, DNA, RNA, genetic code, and mutation. It describes different patterns of genetic inheritance such as autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked recessive, and multifactorial inheritance. It also discusses different types of chromosomal abnormalities including aneuploidy, structural abnormalities like translocations, deletions, and inversions. Specific genetic and chromosomal disorders are described like Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and others. The document is a guide to genetics and chromosomal disorders.
Structural chromosomal aberrations alter chromosome structure without changing chromosome number. They include intra-chromosomal aberrations that remain within a single chromosome and inter-chromosomal aberrations involving breaks between non-homologous chromosomes. Common structural aberrations are deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations, which can have varying effects on fertility, viability, and phenotype depending on the genes involved. Structural aberrations provide tools for gene mapping and have evolutionary importance.
B.Sc. Microbiology/Biotech II Cell biology and Genetics Unit 5 microbial gene...Rai University
ย
1. Genetic linkage refers to the tendency of alleles located near each other on a chromosome to be inherited together during meiosis. Linkage mapping uses recombination frequencies between genetic markers to construct genetic maps showing the relative positions of genes.
2. Physical mapping techniques like restriction mapping cut DNA into fragments to construct overlapping contig maps of chromosome regions without regard to specific genes.
3. Bacterial cells can exchange genetic material through three main processes: conjugation, transduction, and transformation. These processes aid genetic recombination and variation in bacteria.
This theory proposes that hereditary traits are transmitted from one generation to the next through chromosomes and gametes. Gametes contain only one set of chromosomes and fuse during fertilization to restore the paired chromosome condition. Chromosomes are replicated and passed from parents to offspring, behaving in accordance with Mendel's laws of inheritance and explaining the mechanism of inheritance. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes, which can be of the XX-XY, ZZ-ZW, or XX-XO types.
Chromosomal mutations are changes in chromosome structure or number that can be caused by physical or chemical agents. There are two main types of chromosomal mutations: structural changes including deletions, duplications, translocations, and inversions, and numerical changes such as aneuploidy where there is an excess or deficiency of a single chromosome. Examples of aneuploidies in humans are Down syndrome, Edward syndrome, and Patau syndrome. Chromosomal mutations can have varying effects depending on the genes involved, from no symptoms to developmental delays or medical conditions.
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half to produce gametes for sexual reproduction. It involves two cell divisions. In the first division, homologous chromosome pairs separate, reducing the number by half. Crossing over and random assortment during meiosis increases genetic variation. Fusion of male and female gametes through fertilization combines the genetic material of the two parents, maximizing genetic diversity in offspring. Errors in meiosis can result in chromosomal abnormalities like Down syndrome. Methods to obtain fetal cells for analysis include amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling.
Chromosome structure variations can arise from breaks that are rejoined randomly. This can result in deletions, duplications, inversions, rings, or translocations of chromosomal segments. Problems include breaking critical genes or improper disjunction during meiosis leading to aneuploidy and non-viable gametes. Specific issues depend on the type of structural variation, such as pericentric inversions causing both duplications and deletions after recombination. Translocations can also lead to aneuploid gametes if alternate versus adjacent segregation occurs during meiosis I.
Structural and numerical chromosomal abberationsPriyanka Guleria
ย
This document provides an overview of structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations. It begins by defining chromosomal aberrations and describing the main types: structural (deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations) and numerical (aneuploidy, euploidy). For each type of aberration, the document discusses their origin, effects, and significance in crop improvement. Case studies are also presented to illustrate concepts like detecting deletions in Drosophila and producing monosomics in wheat. The document concludes by emphasizing the use of chromosomal aberrations in genetic mapping and breeding new crop varieties.
Meiosis, crossing over during meiosis, and random fertilization all contribute to genetic variation among offspring. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes randomly assort and cross over, mixing the genetic material from the parents in new combinations. Then, when millions of sperm cells fertilize millions of eggs randomly, virtually every possible combination of parental genetic material can occur, leading to hugely diverse offspring. This genetic variation is important for evolution and adaptation to the environment.
This document discusses mutations, which are alterations in an organism's DNA sequence. There are several types of mutations, including base substitutions, deletions, and insertions. Mutations can occur due to errors during DNA replication or repair. While most mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial for evolution. The effects of mutations depend on factors like how many DNA bases are affected. Mutation rates vary within and between genomes.
Crossing over was first discovered by Thomas Hunt Morgan. It occurs during meiosis-I and involves the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes, resulting in recombinant chromosomes. The percentage of crossing over between two genes is directly proportional to the distance between them, with closer genes having a lower chance of crossing over than more distant genes. Crossing over contributes to genetic variation in offspring by recombining parental alleles on chromatids.
Recombination model and cytological basis of crossing overAlex Harley
ย
This study evaluated the effect of expressing multiple heterologous recombinases on increasing homologous recombination in tobacco plants. The recombinases RecA, RecG, RuvC, Rad51, Rad52 and DMC1 were expressed individually and in combinations in tobacco plants containing a recombination substrate. Expression of DMC1 alone produced the greatest stimulation of homologous recombination, increasing recombination frequency up to 1000-fold. Expression of other recombinases also increased recombination 2 to 380-fold. Increasing homologous recombination could improve the efficiency of gene targeting for plant biotechnology applications using CRISPR/Cas.
ANEUPLOIDY (Introduction, classification, merits and demerits)Bushra Hafeez
ย
Aneuploidy is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which numbers of chromosomes are abnormal.Generally, the aneuploid chromosome set differs from wild type by only one or a small number of chromosomes. It is a genetic disorder causes birth defects. It is the second major category of chromosome mutations in which chromosome number is abnormal.
Aneuploid nomenclature is based on the number of copies of the specific chromosome in the aneuploid state. For example, the aneuploid condition 2nโโโ1 is called monosomic (meaning โone chromosomeโ) because only one copy of some specific chromosome is present instead of the usual two found in its diploid progenitor. The aneuploid 2nโ+โ1 is called trisomic,2nโโโ2 is nullisomic, and nโ+โ1 is disomic.
Chromosomal aberrations, utilization of aneuploids, chimeras and role of allo...GauravRajSinhVaghela
ย
This document provides information about chromosomal aberrations. It begins by defining chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations. There are two main types of chromosomal aberrations: structural and numerical. Structural aberrations include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations which alter chromosome structure but not number. Specific structural aberrations like deletions are then defined and examples of diseases caused by deletions are provided. The document also discusses duplication, inversion and provides examples.
1. Linkage refers to the tendency of genes located on the same chromosome to be inherited together. Linked genes remain in their original combination during inheritance.
2. Crossing over occurs during meiosis when exchange of genetic material occurs between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes, resulting in new combinations of genes.
3. Recombination produces new variations in offspring through the formation of recombinant chromosomes from crossing over. This contributes to genetic variation and evolution.
Chromosomes replicate and pair up during meiosis. Crossing over can lead to an exchange of DNA between homologous non-sister chromatids. This produces new combinations of alleles and chiasmata may form at points of exchange. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes separate and random orientation leads to independent assortment. Sister chromatids then separate in meiosis II, resulting in four haploid cells each with a unique combination of alleles.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific instructions that make each type of living creature unique. The term chromosome comes from the Greek words for color (chroma) and body (soma). In the present slide, the structural chromosomal aberration is discussed. The diseases caused due to such aberrations are also explained. Hope you all enjoy. Feel free to comment if have any further clarifications.
This document discusses linkage and crossing over of genes. It explains that genes located on the same chromosome are linked, and the closer they are, the stronger the linkage. Crossing over occurs during meiosis and leads to recombination of genes from homologous chromosomes. Linkage maps can be constructed by observing the frequency of crossing over between linked gene loci. These maps show the linear order and genetic distances between genes on chromosomes.
Genetic linkage occurs when alleles located near each other on a chromosome tend to be inherited together during meiosis. Genes located closer together are less likely to undergo chromosomal crossover and become separated, making them more likely to be inherited together. The closer two genes are on a chromosome, the lower the chance that a crossover will occur between them. Crossing over during meiosis can lead to new combinations of genes on homologous chromosomes. The frequency of crossing over depends on the distance between genes, with genes farther apart having a greater chance of crossover.
Crossing over occurs during meiosis when homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material, forming recombinant chromosomes. It increases genetic variation in offspring by producing chromosomes with recombined alleles that are different from the parents. Crossing over involves two reciprocal breaks and reunions between nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. This leads to offspring that have different combinations of genes and alleles than their parents.
Genetic inheritance and chromosomal disordersRakesh Verma
ย
This document provides information about genetics, genetic inheritance, and chromosomal disorders. It defines key genetic terms like gene, allele, DNA, RNA, genetic code, and mutation. It describes different patterns of genetic inheritance such as autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked recessive, and multifactorial inheritance. It also discusses different types of chromosomal abnormalities including aneuploidy, structural abnormalities like translocations, deletions, and inversions. Specific genetic and chromosomal disorders are described like Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and others. The document is a guide to genetics and chromosomal disorders.
Structural chromosomal aberrations alter chromosome structure without changing chromosome number. They include intra-chromosomal aberrations that remain within a single chromosome and inter-chromosomal aberrations involving breaks between non-homologous chromosomes. Common structural aberrations are deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations, which can have varying effects on fertility, viability, and phenotype depending on the genes involved. Structural aberrations provide tools for gene mapping and have evolutionary importance.
B.Sc. Microbiology/Biotech II Cell biology and Genetics Unit 5 microbial gene...Rai University
ย
1. Genetic linkage refers to the tendency of alleles located near each other on a chromosome to be inherited together during meiosis. Linkage mapping uses recombination frequencies between genetic markers to construct genetic maps showing the relative positions of genes.
2. Physical mapping techniques like restriction mapping cut DNA into fragments to construct overlapping contig maps of chromosome regions without regard to specific genes.
3. Bacterial cells can exchange genetic material through three main processes: conjugation, transduction, and transformation. These processes aid genetic recombination and variation in bacteria.
This theory proposes that hereditary traits are transmitted from one generation to the next through chromosomes and gametes. Gametes contain only one set of chromosomes and fuse during fertilization to restore the paired chromosome condition. Chromosomes are replicated and passed from parents to offspring, behaving in accordance with Mendel's laws of inheritance and explaining the mechanism of inheritance. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes, which can be of the XX-XY, ZZ-ZW, or XX-XO types.
Chromosomal mutations are changes in chromosome structure or number that can be caused by physical or chemical agents. There are two main types of chromosomal mutations: structural changes including deletions, duplications, translocations, and inversions, and numerical changes such as aneuploidy where there is an excess or deficiency of a single chromosome. Examples of aneuploidies in humans are Down syndrome, Edward syndrome, and Patau syndrome. Chromosomal mutations can have varying effects depending on the genes involved, from no symptoms to developmental delays or medical conditions.
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half to produce gametes for sexual reproduction. It involves two cell divisions. In the first division, homologous chromosome pairs separate, reducing the number by half. Crossing over and random assortment during meiosis increases genetic variation. Fusion of male and female gametes through fertilization combines the genetic material of the two parents, maximizing genetic diversity in offspring. Errors in meiosis can result in chromosomal abnormalities like Down syndrome. Methods to obtain fetal cells for analysis include amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling.
Chromosome structure variations can arise from breaks that are rejoined randomly. This can result in deletions, duplications, inversions, rings, or translocations of chromosomal segments. Problems include breaking critical genes or improper disjunction during meiosis leading to aneuploidy and non-viable gametes. Specific issues depend on the type of structural variation, such as pericentric inversions causing both duplications and deletions after recombination. Translocations can also lead to aneuploid gametes if alternate versus adjacent segregation occurs during meiosis I.
Structural and numerical chromosomal abberationsPriyanka Guleria
ย
This document provides an overview of structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations. It begins by defining chromosomal aberrations and describing the main types: structural (deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations) and numerical (aneuploidy, euploidy). For each type of aberration, the document discusses their origin, effects, and significance in crop improvement. Case studies are also presented to illustrate concepts like detecting deletions in Drosophila and producing monosomics in wheat. The document concludes by emphasizing the use of chromosomal aberrations in genetic mapping and breeding new crop varieties.
Meiosis, crossing over during meiosis, and random fertilization all contribute to genetic variation among offspring. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes randomly assort and cross over, mixing the genetic material from the parents in new combinations. Then, when millions of sperm cells fertilize millions of eggs randomly, virtually every possible combination of parental genetic material can occur, leading to hugely diverse offspring. This genetic variation is important for evolution and adaptation to the environment.
This document discusses mutations, which are alterations in an organism's DNA sequence. There are several types of mutations, including base substitutions, deletions, and insertions. Mutations can occur due to errors during DNA replication or repair. While most mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial for evolution. The effects of mutations depend on factors like how many DNA bases are affected. Mutation rates vary within and between genomes.
This document discusses mutations, which are alterations in an organism's DNA sequence. There are several types of mutations, including base substitutions, deletions, and insertions. Mutations can occur due to errors during DNA replication or repair. While most mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial for evolution. Mutations may affect single bases or entire chromosomes. They can originate in somatic or germ cells. Certain DNA regions called hotspots are especially prone to mutations. The effects of mutations range from neutral to strongly beneficial or deleterious, depending on factors like how many base pairs are altered.
This document discusses genetic variation and its causes. It defines genetic variation as differences in genetic makeup between individuals in a population. Genetic variation arises through mutation, gene flow, and sexual reproduction. Mutation refers to changes in DNA sequences that can result from substitutions, additions, or deletions of base pairs. Gene flow introduces new genes through migration. Sexual reproduction combines genes from parents in new ways. Genetic variation is important for evolution as it provides variation for natural selection to act upon. Variation can be discontinuous, with clear categories, or continuous, with gradual differences. Both types have genetic bases but involve different numbers and effects of gene loci.
This document discusses genetic and non-genetic sources of variation within populations. It defines variation and describes the main types as genotypic and phenotypic. The key causes of genetic variation are mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, sexual reproduction and recombination during meiosis. Non-genetic sources include environmental factors, age, social influences, habitat, density and trauma. Variation is important for evolution as it provides genetic diversity for natural selection to act upon, allowing populations to adapt to changing environments over time.
This document discusses types of variation in plants, including their origin and scale. It covers genetic and environmental variation, as well as qualitative and quantitative traits. Genetic variation arises from processes like recombination, chromosome modifications, and mutations. Qualitative traits are discrete while quantitative traits exhibit continuous variation controlled by multiple genes. The document provides examples and explanations of these concepts.
This document discusses gene mutation and provides definitions and examples of different types of mutations. It covers somatic and germinal mutations, different mutant types like morphological, lethal, conditional, biochemical and resistance mutations. It also discusses how mutations occur spontaneously through errors in DNA replication or frameshifts, and can also be induced through exposure to mutagens. Mutation is described as an important phenomenon for generating genetic variation and driving evolution, but must occur at a low rate to maintain genetic information transfer between generations.
Genomic variation refers to slight differences in genetic material between organisms. It includes mutations, which are mistakes in DNA copying, and polymorphisms, where multiple alleles exist for a gene. Variations are found throughout genomes and are not evenly distributed. Studying genomic variation helps with genome mapping and screening for genetic diseases. Phylogeny determines evolutionary relationships between species based on physical/genetic similarities from fossils, molecules, and genes. A phylogenetic tree shows inferred relationships in a branching diagram. Synteny refers to homologous genes occurring in the same order on chromosomes, showing closely related species have similar gene order and large syntenic regions. The document compares gene order and syntenic regions among rice, sorghum, maize, and
This document provides information on inheritance and variation. It discusses two types of variation: continuous variation which is influenced by both genes and environment, and discontinuous variation which is solely due to genes. Examples like height and skin color are used to illustrate continuous variation, while blood type demonstrates discontinuous variation. The role of chromosomes, DNA, genes, and mutations in inheritance and causing variation are also explained. Sickle cell anemia is presented as an example of a condition resulting from a gene mutation.
Mutations are changes in a DNA sequence that can occur due to errors in DNA copying, exposure to mutagens like radiation or chemicals, or infection by viruses. There are two main types of mutations - germline mutations that can be inherited, and somatic mutations that occur in body cells and are not passed to offspring. Mutations can involve changes to genes like substitutions or deletions of DNA bases, or changes to chromosomes like translocations, duplications, or changes in chromosome number. The effects of mutations depend on whether they are dominant or recessive, and the type of cell and genes involved.
Genetic variation arises from four main sources: mutations, sexual reproduction, fertilization, and environmental influences. Mutations are changes in DNA that create new alleles and variations. Sexual reproduction and meiosis increase variation through independent assortment, crossing over, and random fertilization. A dihybrid cross examines inheritance of two traits controlled by separate genes. Mendel's dihybrid crosses on peas produced offspring in a 9:3:3:1 ratio, showing traits assort independently. Genetic variation allows populations to adapt to environmental changes over generations.
Genetic variation refers to differences in genes between individuals of a population. It arises due to mutations, recombination during meiosis, gene flow between populations, and environmental factors. Genetic variation is important for evolution and survival of species as it provides raw materials for natural selection. While some genetic variations are harmful, others can provide benefits like disease resistance. Variations in genes involved in drug metabolism can impact individual responses to medications. Understanding genetic diversity is important for personalized medicine and drug development.
Mutations are permanent changes to the nucleotide sequence of genetic material. There are two main types of mutations: chromosomal mutations which involve changes in chromosome structure like deletions, inversions, or duplications, and gene mutations which alter single nucleotides and can be substitutions, insertions, or deletions. Mutations can occur spontaneously during DNA replication or be caused by mutagens like radiation or chemicals. While many mutations are harmful, some can provide benefits for organisms and increase their chances of survival.
Cytogenetics examines chromosomes microscopically to detect abnormalities in chromosome number or structure. Chromosomes are stained and have characteristic banding patterns used to identify them. Variations in chromosome structure include deficiencies/deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations. Deficiencies occur when a chromosome fragment is lost. Duplications involve repetition of a chromosomal segment. Inversions flip a segment to the opposite orientation. Translocations exchange genetic material between non-homologous chromosomes. These structural variations can impact phenotypes but many are phenotypically normal.
Chromosomal and gene mutations can both cause changes to an organism's genetic code. Chromosomal mutations, also called genome mutations, involve changes to the structure or number of chromosomes, such as deletions, duplications, inversions, or changes in ploidy. Gene mutations involve changes to the DNA sequence of individual genes, such as point mutations, frameshift mutations, or mutations that change the resulting protein. Both types of mutations can be spontaneous or induced, and can have effects ranging from silent to lethal depending on the genes and chromosomes involved.
This document discusses human genetics and its influence on orthodontics. It begins with an introduction on how genetics and environment both influence malocclusion. It then covers terminology, principles of inheritance like Mendelian genetics and modes of inheritance. Specific topics discussed include mutations, homeobox genes, heritability of traits like tooth number and position. The role of genetics in arch form and treatment outcomes are also mentioned. The document concludes by noting the importance of continued genetic research.
There are several types of mutations including gene mutations, chromosome mutations, point mutations, deletions, insertions, frameshifts, substitutions, translocations, and inversions. Mutations can occur in somatic or germ cells and can arise spontaneously or be induced. They are classified based on factors like the type of cell involved, origin, direction, size, phenotypic effects, magnitude of effects, loss or gain of function, and type of chromosome. Chromosomal mutations include changes in number, like aneuploidy, or structural changes such as duplications, inversions, and translocations. [/SUMMARY]
Genetic variation occurs both within and among populations and is brought about by mutation, recombination, migration, and genetic drift. There are four main types of genetic variation: mutation, genetic recombination, migration, and genetic drift. Genetic variation is important as it allows individuals and populations to adapt to their environments. It plays a key role in health and pharmacology, for example in gene therapy which aims to treat diseases by replacing, inactivating, or introducing new genes.
This document discusses types of variation, including continuous variation seen in traits like height which have many intermediate levels, and discontinuous variation where traits like blood type have distinct categories with no intermediates. It also discusses how mutations can be caused by errors in DNA replication or exposure to mutagens, and can result in conditions like albinism or Down syndrome. Natural selection is defined as environmental pressures favoring organisms best suited to the environment, while artificial selection is when humans breed organisms to emphasize desired traits.
Principles of inheritance & Variation-IVChethan Kumar
ย
The topic of discussion here is about Mutation & different types of mutation in organism, their effects & Mutational theory of evolution. Further the changes in the Number of chromosomes due to mutation and its effects & Mendelian disorders & their patterns of inheritance including the numerical abberations in chromosomes & the disorders associated with it.
Similar to Chromosomal Variations, Continuous and Discontinuous Variations, Genotypic & Phenotypic Variations and the recombination (20)
The challenges of abiotic stress on plant growth and development are evident among the emerging ecological impacts of climate change, and the constraints to crop production exacerbated with the increasing human population competing for environmental resources.
These Slides will help you understand such stresses.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
ย
(๐๐๐ ๐๐๐) (๐๐๐ฌ๐ฌ๐จ๐ง ๐)-๐๐ซ๐๐ฅ๐ข๐ฆ๐ฌ
๐๐ข๐ฌ๐๐ฎ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐๐ ๐๐ฎ๐ซ๐ซ๐ข๐๐ฎ๐ฅ๐ฎ๐ฆ ๐ข๐ง ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐ก๐ข๐ฅ๐ข๐ฉ๐ฉ๐ข๐ง๐๐ฌ:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
๐๐ฑ๐ฉ๐ฅ๐๐ข๐ง ๐ญ๐ก๐ ๐๐๐ญ๐ฎ๐ซ๐ ๐๐ง๐ ๐๐๐จ๐ฉ๐ ๐จ๐ ๐๐ง ๐๐ง๐ญ๐ซ๐๐ฉ๐ซ๐๐ง๐๐ฎ๐ซ:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Andreas Schleicher presents PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Thinking - 18 Jun...EduSkills OECD
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Andreas Schleicher, Director of Education and Skills at the OECD presents at the launch of PISA 2022 Volume III - Creative Minds, Creative Schools on 18 June 2024.
This presentation was provided by Rebecca Benner, Ph.D., of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
This presentation was provided by Racquel Jemison, Ph.D., Christina MacLaughlin, Ph.D., and Paulomi Majumder. Ph.D., all of the American Chemical Society, for the second session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session Two: 'Expanding Pathways to Publishing Careers,' was held June 13, 2024.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
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Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
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The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
4. VARIATIONS
The term โvariationโ refers to
observable differences within a
species. In biology, any
difference between cells,
individual organisms or groups
of organisms of any species.
5. TYPES OF VARIATIONS
B. PHENOTYPIC VARIATIONS
A. GENOTYPIC VARIATIONS
A. GENOTYPIC VARIATIONS
The variations that are caused by differences in number
or structure of chromosomes or by the differences in
the genes carried by the chromosomes.
6. Genotypic variations comes in many different forms. Different
hair color, eye color and skin color and many other examples
come in this type of variations.
8. PANMIXIA
Panmixia is also called as random
mating which refers to mating in a
population that occur in proportion to
their genotypic frequencies. Because of
this the potential mates have an equal
chance of being selected.
9. THE HARDY-WEINBERG LAW OF RANDOM
MATING:
If a large, random-mating population that is not affected by the
evolutionary processes of mutation, migration, or selection, both
the allele frequencies and the genotype frequencies are constant
from generation to generation. The population is in a state of
equilibrium.
As an example, consider a diploid pathogen such as an oomycete
that has two alleles at an isozyme locus. If the frequency of the fast
allele (F) is 0.40 and the frequency of the slow alleles (S) is 0.60,
then the expected frequencies of the genotypes FF, FS, and SS
would be 0.16, 0.48, and 0.36, respectively.
10. RANDOM FERTILIZATION
When a male gamete and a female gamete finally meet, each is the
result of an immense number of genetic possibilities created
during independent assortment and crossing over.
We can calculate the possible number of random combinations of
chromosomes in each gamete (sperm/egg) using the equation:
Number of possible combinations = 2n
Human diploid cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Here n = 23
which will make 8,388,608 genetically unique gametes.
11. RECOMBINATION
โRecombination is a process by which pieces of DNA are
broken and recombined to produce new combinations of
alleles.โ
This recombination process creates genetic diversity at the level
of genes that reflects differences in the DNA sequences of
different organisms.
Genetic recombination occurs due to crossing over during the cell
division in cell.
12. CROSSING OVER:
โCrossing over is the swapping of genetic material that
occurs in the germ line.โ
โข In humans, there are over 8 million configurations in which
the chromosomes can line up during metaphase I of meiosis.
โข It is the specific process of meiosis, resulting in four
unique haploid cells, that results in these many combinations.
โข Together with random fertilization , more possibilities for
genetic variation exist between any two people than the
number of individuals alive today.
13. โข A sperm cell , with over 8 million chromosome
combinations, fertilizes an egg cell , which also has over
8 million chromosome combinations.
โข That is over 64 trillion unique combinations, not counting
the unique combinations produced by crossing-over.
14. MUTATION
A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence. Mutations can
result from DNA copying mistakes made during cell division,
exposure to ionizing radiation, exposure to chemicals called
mutagens, or infection by viruses.
Germ line mutations:
A gene change in reproductive cell (eggs & sperm) and can be
passed on to offspring. For example cancer and cystic fibrosis.
Somatic mutations:
A mutation that occurs in the body cells after the embryo has
begun to form. Cancer is an example of this mutation type.
17. POINT MUTATIONS
A point mutation is a change in a single nucleotide in DNA. This
type of mutation is usually less serious than a chromosomal
alteration. An example of a point mutation is a mutation that changes
the codon UUU(Phenylalanine) to the codon UCU(Serine).
18. FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS
A frameshift mutation is a deletion or insertion of one or more
nucleotides that changes the reading frame of the base sequence.
Deletions remove nucleotides, and insertions add nucleotides.
Consider the following sequence of bases in RNA:
Now, assume an insertion occurs in this sequence. Letโs say
an A nucleotide is inserted after the start codon AUG:
AUG-AAU-ACG-GCU = start-asparagine-threonine-alanine
AUG-AAA-UAC-GGC-U = start-lysine-tyrosine-glycine
19. AFFECT OF INSERTION
This insertion changes the reading frame and thus
all of the codons that follow it. As this example
shows, a frameshift mutation can dramatically
change how the codons in mRNA are read. This
can have a drastic effect on the protein product.
20. PHENOTYPIC VARIATIONS
โPhenotypic variation, then, is the variability in phenotypes that
exists in a population.โ
Phenotypes are traits or characteristics of an organism that we can
observe, such as size, color, shape, capabilities, behaviors, etc.
Not all phenotypes can actually be seen. For example, blood types are
phenotypes that we can only observe using laboratory techniques.
Phenotypes can be caused by genes, environmental factors, or a
combination of both.
22. CONTINUOUS VARIATIONS
When a characteristic or phenotype normally exists in a range or
gradient, it varies continuously, such as height and skin color. In
between the shortest person in the world and the tallest person in
the world, any height is possible, not just four feet, five feet, or six
feet.
24. DISCONTINUOUS VARIATIONS
"A characteristic of any species with only a limited number of
possible values shows discontinuous variation.โ
These phenotypes exist only at discrete intervals, like 'black and
white' differences.
For example, you can have blood type A, B, AB, or O, but there aren't
any intermediate blood types in between.
Another example is the ability to roll your tongue. Either you can or
you can't, so this phenotype varies discontinuously.