Aneuploidy is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which numbers of chromosomes are abnormal.Generally, the aneuploid chromosome set differs from wild type by only one or a small number of chromosomes. It is a genetic disorder causes birth defects. It is the second major category of chromosome mutations in which chromosome number is abnormal.
Aneuploid nomenclature is based on the number of copies of the specific chromosome in the aneuploid state. For example, the aneuploid condition 2n − 1 is called monosomic (meaning “one chromosome”) because only one copy of some specific chromosome is present instead of the usual two found in its diploid progenitor. The aneuploid 2n + 1 is called trisomic,2n − 2 is nullisomic, and n + 1 is disomic.
It is the fundamental law of population genetics and provides the basis for studying Mendelian populations ( Mendelian population: A group of sexually inbreeding organisms living within a circumscribed area). It describes populations that are not evolving.
Maternal effects are the influences of a mothers genotype on the phenotype of her offspring. It results from the asymmetric contribution of the female parent to the development of zygotes.
In terms of chromosomal genes, both male and female parents contribute equally to the zygote. The female parent contributes to the zygotes initial cytoplasm and organelles. Sperm rarely contribute anything other than chromosomes. Therefore zygotic development begins within a maternal medium and hence the maternal cytoplasm directly affects zygotic development.
It is the fundamental law of population genetics and provides the basis for studying Mendelian populations ( Mendelian population: A group of sexually inbreeding organisms living within a circumscribed area). It describes populations that are not evolving.
Maternal effects are the influences of a mothers genotype on the phenotype of her offspring. It results from the asymmetric contribution of the female parent to the development of zygotes.
In terms of chromosomal genes, both male and female parents contribute equally to the zygote. The female parent contributes to the zygotes initial cytoplasm and organelles. Sperm rarely contribute anything other than chromosomes. Therefore zygotic development begins within a maternal medium and hence the maternal cytoplasm directly affects zygotic development.
A chromosome abnormality, disorder, anomaly, aberration, or mutation is a missing, extra, or irregular portion of chromosomal DNA. It can be from an atypical number of chromosomes or a structural abnormality in one or more chromosomes
Chromosomes are known as hereditary vehicles
They are formed of strands of DNA molecules which contain information for the development of different characteristics and performance of various metabolic activities of the cells
The coordination of various function is brought about through the formation of enzymes which are complex protein molecules
Structural Chromosomal aberrations (Change in Structure of Chromosome)Asad Afridi
this presentation is about chromosomal aberration especially change in structure of chromosome. different types of structural chromosomal aberrations are also discussed. effects of different aberration are also included.
According to Hardy (England,1908) and Weinberg (Germany,1909), gene and genotype frequency of a Mendelian population remain constant generation after generation unless there is selection,mutation,migration or random drift.
chromosomal aberrations
Variation in chromosomal structure or number
changes in the number of sets of chromosomes (ploidy), changes in the number of individual chromosomes (somy), or changes in appearance of individual chromosomes through mutation-induced rearrangements. They can be associated with genetic diseases or with species differences
Mujahid Hussain, Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan
During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be m.pdfinfo824691
During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be made then give examples
of some diseases that occur because of such events.
Solution
Living cells divide to form new cells in order to repair worn-out or damaged tissues throughout
an organism, and (in the gametes only) to enable the exchange of genetic material at the initial
stage of the process of sexual reproduction. (A gamete is a mature sex cell, specifically the ovum
of the female or the spermatozoon of the male.) The two types of cell division are generally
called mitosis and meiosis but, strictly, these terms refer to the stages of division of the cell
nucleus for somatic (non-reproductive) and reproductive cells, respectively.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division by which a single cell divides in such a way as to produce two
genetically identical \"daughter cells\". This is the method by which the body produces new cells
for both growth and repair of aging or damaged tissues throughout the body.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a \"reduction division\" in which a cell divides into four \"daughter cells\" each of
which has half of the number of chromosomes of the original cell. Meiosis occurs prior to the
formation of sperm (in males) and ova (in females). Meiosis only occurs in the \"gametes\".
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, each of which is divided into four phases. The first
meiotic division is similar to mitosis and the second meiotic division is the \"reduction\" stage.
Meiosis enables the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes.
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate
properly during cell division (Mitosis and Meiosis).
There are three forms of nondisjunctions:
1. Failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I,
2. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and
3. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells
with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy).
The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be
aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n-1), in which the daughter cell with the defect will
have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy.
Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell with the defect will have one
chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic
gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result.
Monosomy
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected
individual is monosomic for the X chromosome. Other monosomies are usually lethal during
early fetal development.
Turner syndrome (X monosomy) (45, X0)
Karyotype of X monosomy (Turner syndrome): This condition is characterized by the presence
of only one X chromosome and no Y chromosome.
Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of.
A chromosome abnormality, disorder, anomaly, aberration, or mutation is a missing, extra, or irregular portion of chromosomal DNA. It can be from an atypical number of chromosomes or a structural abnormality in one or more chromosomes
Chromosomes are known as hereditary vehicles
They are formed of strands of DNA molecules which contain information for the development of different characteristics and performance of various metabolic activities of the cells
The coordination of various function is brought about through the formation of enzymes which are complex protein molecules
Structural Chromosomal aberrations (Change in Structure of Chromosome)Asad Afridi
this presentation is about chromosomal aberration especially change in structure of chromosome. different types of structural chromosomal aberrations are also discussed. effects of different aberration are also included.
According to Hardy (England,1908) and Weinberg (Germany,1909), gene and genotype frequency of a Mendelian population remain constant generation after generation unless there is selection,mutation,migration or random drift.
chromosomal aberrations
Variation in chromosomal structure or number
changes in the number of sets of chromosomes (ploidy), changes in the number of individual chromosomes (somy), or changes in appearance of individual chromosomes through mutation-induced rearrangements. They can be associated with genetic diseases or with species differences
Mujahid Hussain, Department of Botany, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan
During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be m.pdfinfo824691
During Mitosis and Meiosis, describe how and where errors might be made then give examples
of some diseases that occur because of such events.
Solution
Living cells divide to form new cells in order to repair worn-out or damaged tissues throughout
an organism, and (in the gametes only) to enable the exchange of genetic material at the initial
stage of the process of sexual reproduction. (A gamete is a mature sex cell, specifically the ovum
of the female or the spermatozoon of the male.) The two types of cell division are generally
called mitosis and meiosis but, strictly, these terms refer to the stages of division of the cell
nucleus for somatic (non-reproductive) and reproductive cells, respectively.
Mitosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division by which a single cell divides in such a way as to produce two
genetically identical \"daughter cells\". This is the method by which the body produces new cells
for both growth and repair of aging or damaged tissues throughout the body.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a \"reduction division\" in which a cell divides into four \"daughter cells\" each of
which has half of the number of chromosomes of the original cell. Meiosis occurs prior to the
formation of sperm (in males) and ova (in females). Meiosis only occurs in the \"gametes\".
Meiosis consists of two successive divisions, each of which is divided into four phases. The first
meiotic division is similar to mitosis and the second meiotic division is the \"reduction\" stage.
Meiosis enables the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes.
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate
properly during cell division (Mitosis and Meiosis).
There are three forms of nondisjunctions:
1. Failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I,
2. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and
3. Failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells
with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy).
The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be
aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n-1), in which the daughter cell with the defect will
have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy.
Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell with the defect will have one
chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic
gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result.
Monosomy
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected
individual is monosomic for the X chromosome. Other monosomies are usually lethal during
early fetal development.
Turner syndrome (X monosomy) (45, X0)
Karyotype of X monosomy (Turner syndrome): This condition is characterized by the presence
of only one X chromosome and no Y chromosome.
Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of.
Activity 4 Understanding the basics of meiosisMitosis and mei.docxcoubroughcosta
Activity 4: Understanding the basics of meiosis
Mitosis and meiosis both lead to new daughter cells, but meiosis sets up organisms for sexual
reproduction. Meiosis produces cells (sperm and egg in humans) with only one set of chromosomes so that when fertilization occurs, it results in a new cell with two sets of chromosomes (one from the egg and one from the sperm). This is how there is genetic recombination of DNA resulting in unique individuals.
Before we talk about what can go wrong in meiosis, you need to be clear about the process itself and how genetic recombination in particular occurs. To this end, complete the following set of questions.
Questions
1. In the following diagram, draw what a cell with 1 chromosome would look like in the stages of meiosis. Prophase 1 is filled in for you and includes replicated homologous chromosomes; the black replicated chromosome is from the reproducing male’s mom and the grey replicated chromosome is from dad.
2. In your diagram from question 1:
a. How many tetrads are formed? _______________
b. How many chromosomes are in the sperm? _______________
3. In what stage(s) of meiosis:
a. Are tetrads formed? ________________________________
b. Does crossing over occur? ________________________________
c. Do the chromosomes move to the poles? ________________________________
d. Do replicated chromosomes separate? ________________________________
e. Does the cytoplasm divide? ________________________________
4. What processes in meiosis result in genetically unique daughter cells? When do these processes occur? (Note: There are two main processes; discuss both).
5. Compare and contrast meiosis with mitosis to complete the following table.
Table 2. Comparison of key characteristics between meiosis and mitosis.
Characteristics
Mitosis
Meiosis
Type of organisms it occurs in
# of chromosomes in human parent cell
Number of times chromosomes replicate
Number of cell divisions
Crossing over occurs? (Y/N)
Type of daughter cells produced
Number of daughter cells produced
Daughter cells identical to parent cell? (Y/N)
Daughter cells are: 1n or 2n?
# of chromosomes in human daughter cells
Activity 3: Chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis
In the nucleus of the cell are the chromosomes that are composed of the hereditary material DNA. In every somatic (body) cell of a human there are 46 chromosomes. Each species may have a different number of chromosomes than another species.
Since each somatic cell of an organism contains the same number of chromosomes, there must be a duplication of material before the nucleus divides during mitosis. In each somatic cell, there are two sets of chromosomes; this is referred to as the 2n (diploid) number, in which n means number of chromosomes. In humans, 2n = 46 chromosomes.
In each gamete (sex) cell, there is only one set of chromosomes; this is referred to as the 1n (haploid) number. In humans, 1n = 23 chromosomes. This means the.
The presentation is made on a branch of botany doined Genetics and has been provided by thunder group for others connect here :
http://www.studentisalsohere.blogspot.com
http://www.facebook.com/studentisalsohere
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
2. ANEUPLOIDY:
Aneuploidy is a type of chromosomal abnormality in which numbers of
chromosomes are abnormal.Generally, the aneuploid chromosome set differs from
wild type by only one or a small number of chromosomes. It is a genetic disorder
causes birth defects. It is the second major category of chromosome mutations in
which chromosome number is abnormal.
Aneuploid nomenclature is based on the number of copies of the specific
chromosomein the aneuploid state. Forexample, the aneuploid condition 2n − 1
is called monosomic (meaning “one chromosome”) because only one copy of some
specific chromosome is present instead of the usual two found in its diploid
progenitor. The aneuploid 2n + 1 is called trisomic,2n − 2 is nullisomic, and
n + 1 is disomic.
How it occurs?
Aneuploidy occurs during cell division due to nondisjunction of chromosomes
which leads to unequal distribution of chromosomes to the daughter cells. Weak
mitotic checkpoint leads to nondisjunction. In Aneuploidy, there is either reduction
or partial increase of the chromosome number. Reduction is said to be hypoploidy,
while increase is said to be hyperploidy. Hypoploidy is due to loss of one or two
chromosomes.
Aneuploidy occurs during cell division when the chromosomes do not separate
properly between the two cells. Chromosome abnormalities occur in 1 of 160 live
births. This generally happens when cytokinesis starts occurring while karyokinesis
is still under the process. Most cases of aneuploidy result in termination of the
developing fetus, but there can be cases of live birth; the most common extra
chromosomes among live births are 21, 18 and 13
CLASSIFICATION OF ANEUPLOIDY
There are different types of Aneuploidy:-
Hypoploidy
Describes a cell or organism which has less than the normal total number of
chromosomes. i.e.
Monosomy (2n-1).
Nullisomy (2n-2).
3. Hyperploidy
Describes a cell or organism which has more than the normal total number of
chromosomes. i.e.
Trisomy (2n+1)
Tetrasomy (2n +2).
Monosomy:
In monosomic diploid individuals, (in the genome) one of the pairs of homologues
would undergo a loss ofone chromosomeand it becomes aunivalent while all others
are bivalents. The diploids cannot generally withstand such a loss, while polyploids
can withstand it. This is due to the fact that polypliods (see later in the same chapter)
have more than two homologues for every pair.
Theoretically the number ofmonosomies possiblein an individual equals its haploid
number. In common wheat where there are 21 pairs of chromosomes; there are 21
possibilities for monosomies.
E.R. Sears has artificially induced these 21 monosomies in a wheat variety called
Chinese spring. Monosomies have been induced in cotton (Endrizzi et al) and
tobacco (Clausen and Cameron).
While diploids with monosomies do not survive, there are instances as in tomato,
where monosomies could be produced. Here the chromosome number is 2n=24.
Double monosomies (2n-1 -1) have two homologues lost from two different
bivalents.
During meiotic prophase together with the normal bivalents there will be two
separate univalents indicating that both these have lost their partners. Similarly in
triple monosomyone homologue each is lost from three different bivalents and three
univalents appear at the meiotic prophase.
Aneuploidy has been noticed in human beings also. A classical instance is the
Turner's syndrome named after the discoverer H.H. Turner (1938). It occurs in .23
infants for every 1000 births.
Nullisomy:
In this, an entire pair of homologous chromosomes will be missing (2n-2). This
should not be mistaken with double monosomywhere 2 chromosomes are lost from
two different pairs. In nullisomics, the metaphase plate at meiosis I will apparently
show no abnormality and only a comparison with the normal can detect the loss of
one whole pair of chromosomes. Nullisomics have been identified in wheat and
other plants.
4. Trisomy
A trisomy is a type of polysomy in which there are three instances of a particular
chromosome, instead of the normal two. A trisomy is a type of aneuploidy (an
abnormal number of chromosomes).
The number of chromosomes in the cell where trisomy occurs is represented as, for
example, 2n+1 if one chromosomeshows trisomy, 2n+1+1 if two showtrisomy, etc.
Full trisomy, also called primary trisomy, means that an entire extra
chromosome has been copied.
Partial trisomy means that there is an extra copy of part of a chromosome.
Secondary trisomy - the extra chromosome a duplicated arms (the arms are
identical, it is an isochromosome).
Tertiary trisomy - the extra chromosomeis made up of copies of arms from
two other chromosomes.
Trisomies are sometimes characterised as autosomal trisomies (trisomies of the
non-sex chromosomes) and sex-chromosome trisomies.
Tetrasomy
A tetrasomy is a form of aneuploidy with the presence of four copies, instead of the
normal two, of a particular chromosome.
Full tetrasomy of an individual occurs due to non-disjunction when the cells are
dividing (meiosis I or II) to form egg and sperm cells (gametogenesis). This can
result in extra chromosomes in a sperm or egg cell. After fertilization, the resulting
fetus has 48 chromosomes instead of the typical 46.
Tetrasomy is a developmental disorder that affects many parts of the body. This
condition usually causes feeding difficulties in infancy, delayed development,
intellectual disability, changes in muscle tone, distinctive facial features, and other
birth defects. However, the signs and symptoms vary among affected individuals.
Disomics (n + 1)
A disomic is an aberration of a haploid organism. In fungi, they can result from
meiotic nondisjunction. In the fungus Neurospora (a haploid), an n − 1 meiotic
productaborts and does not darken like a normal ascospore;so we may detect MI
and MII nondisjunctions by observing asci with 4:4 and 6:2 ratios of normal to
aborted spores, respectively, as shown here.
5. In these organisms, the disomic (n + 1) meiotic productbecomes a disomic
strain directly. The abortion patterns themselves are diagnostic for the presence of
disomics in the asci. Another way of detecting disomics in fungi is to cross two
strains with homologous chromosomes bearing multiple auxotrophic mutations; for
example:
From such a cross, large populations of ascospores are plated onto minimal
medium. Only ascosporesof genotype + + + + + + can grow and form colonies. Most
of these colonies are found to be disomics and not multiple crossovertypes.
Somatic aneuploids
Aneuploid cells can arise spontaneously in somatic tissue or in cell culture. In such
cases, the initial result is a genetic mosaic of cell types.
Human sexual mosaics—individuals whose bodies are a mixture of male and
female tissue—are good examples. One type of sexual mosaic, (XO)(XYY), can be
explained by postulating an XY zygote in which the Y chromatids fail to disjoin at
an early mitotic division, so both go to one pole:
6. The phenotypic sex of such individuals depends on where the male and female
sectors end up in the body. In the type of nondisjunction being considered,
nondisjunction at a later mitotic division would producea three-way mosaic
(XY)(XO)(XYY), which contains a clone of normal male cells. Other sexual
mosaics have different explanations; as examples, XO/XY is probably due to early
X-chromosome loss in a male zygote and (XX)(XY) is probably the result of a
double fertilization (fused twins). In general, sexual mosaics are called
gynandromorphs.
Origin of a human sexual mosaic (XY)(XO) by Y chromosome loss at the first mitotic division of the
zygote. (a) Fertilization. (b) Chromosome loss. (c) Resulting male and female cells. (d) Mosaic blastocyst.
7. MERITS OF ANEUPLOID
Genetic alterations that exhibit synthetic lethality with the aneuploid state
either by exaggerating the adverse effects of aneuploidy and/or by interfering
with pathways essential for the survival of aneuploid cells could provide the
basis for the discovery of new tumor treatments
Studies in yeast have begun to identify second-site suppressors of the
proliferation defect of aneuploid yeast cells. This approach identified many
genetic alterations, prominent among them mutations in the proteasomal
degradation system. These results not only increase our understanding of the
defects underlying the aneuploid condition but also may shed light on the
evolution of tumors
Recent studies raised doubts overwhether aneuploidy affects gene expression
at the proteome level or whether it can bring phenotypic variation and
improved fitness over euploid counterparts. A profiling study of a large set of
aneuploid yeast strains grown under a variety of conditions demonstrates that
aneuploidy can affect both the transcriptome and the proteome, and generate
significant phenotypic variation that can lead to fitness gains.
DEMERITS OF ANEUPLOID
Aneuploidy causes sterility in crosses.
Aneuploidy effected organism cannot be further used as parent in
hybridization programmes.
Imbalances in gene expression lead to the profound phenotypes associated
with aneuploid conditions, such as Down’s syndrome, with the ultimate goal
of developing therapeutic interventions.
Other common human aneuploidy is the condition known as Klinefelter's
syndrome (Jacobs & Strong, 1959). Klinefelter's males have a total
chromosome number of 47, which includes two X chromosomes and one Y
chromosome.
Monosomies are the opposite of trisomies, in that affected individuals are
missing one chromosome, reducing their total chromosome number to 45
leading to Turner’s syndrome.