This document discusses various topics relating to covalent bonding including:
- Covalent bonds form when valence electrons are shared between two atoms. Molecules are groups of covalently bonded atoms.
- Examples of covalent bonds include H2 and Cl2. Lewis structures can be used to represent covalent bonding using electron dot notation.
- Multiple covalent bonds such as double and triple bonds exist where two or three pairs of electrons are shared between the same two atoms.
- Polar and nonpolar covalent bonds are discussed, where polar bonds result in partial charges on atoms due to unequal electron sharing. Electronegativity determines which atom has greater attraction for shared electrons.
Here we will discover a new type of chemical change in which an atom changes from one element to another by nuclear transformations. Here we will also learn about nuclear radiation.
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Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
1. Warm Up:
• Show me the electron transfer
between magnesium and chlorine
• What would the formula be?
• What is the name of this compound?
2. Covalent Bonding
• Covalent Bond: Valence electrons shared
between two atoms.
• Molecule – a group of covalently bonded
atoms.
– Molecules usually consist of a nonmetal bonded
to a nonmetal or a metalloid bonded to
nonmetal.
3. • Example: H2
• s-orbital of one hydrogen atom overlaps with the s-
orbital of an other hydrogen atom.
• A dash is used to represent a shared pair of
electrons.
• Example: Cl2
• Single covalent bond – share one pair of electrons
between two atoms.
4. Drawing Molecules
• We can use electron dot notation to help
show how the atoms in a molecule are held
together.
• These drawings are known as Lewis
structures.
• All atoms seek to fill their outer energy shell,
most follow the Octet rule, where they will
have 8 electrons on their outer level.
– Hydrogen only wants 2, as it’s in the 1s energy
level.
5. Multiple Covalent Bonds
• Sometimes it is possible to form more than
one covalent bond between two atoms.
• Example: O2
• Double covalent bond – share two pairs of
electrons between the same two atoms.
6. • Example: N2
• Triple covalent bond – share three pairs of
electrons between the same two atoms.
• Double and triple covalent bonds are
referred to as multiple covalent bonds.
7. LEWIS STRUCTURES WITH MULTIPLE
COVALENT BONDS
• Example: CH2O
• If all electrons have been used and the
central atom is not stable, then consider a
multiple bond.
• Convert two dots to a dash.
• Example: CO2
8. Polyatomic Ions
•Group of covalently bonded atoms that has a charge.
(a charged molecule)
•Example: SO4
-2
(sulfate ion)
•These bond ionically with cations
9. Multiple Covalent Bonds
• Sometimes it is possible to form more than
one covalent bond between two atoms.
• Example: O2
• Double covalent bond – share two pairs of
electrons between the same two atoms.
10. • Example: N2
• Triple covalent bond – share three pairs of
electrons between the same two atoms.
• Double and triple covalent bonds are
referred to as multiple covalent bonds.
11. LEWIS STRUCTURES WITH MULTIPLE
COVALENT BONDS
• Example: CH2O
• If all electrons have been used and the
central atom is not stable, then consider a
multiple bond.
• Convert two dots to a dash.
• Example: CO2
12. Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
• Unlike ionic compounds, molecular compounds
are composed of individual covalently bonded
units, or molecules.
• The old system (prefix system) of naming
molecular compounds is based on the use of
prefixes.
– examples: CCl4 — carbon tetrachloride (tetra- = 4)
CO — carbon monoxide (mon- = 1)
CO2 — carbon dioxide (di- = 2)
15. Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
• Covalent bonding involves sharing
electrons between atoms.
• Nonpolar covalent bond – equal sharing of
electrons between two atoms.
– Both atoms have same attraction for shared pair.
– Example: H – H
16. • Polar covalent bond – unequal sharing of
electrons between atoms.
– One atom has greater attraction for shared pair.
(Electronegativity Tug – of – War)
– Example: H – Cl
• This creates partial (δ) charges on each
atom in the bond.
17. • The atom that has a greater attraction for
shared electrons takes on a partial negative
charge. The atom with a weaker attraction
takes on a partial positive charge.
– How can you determine which atom has greater
attraction for electrons?
– ELECTRONEGATIVITY
