This document is a presentation from the FAASTeam to the CFI Workshop on January 1, 2012 about airworthiness limitations. It discusses where limitations come from, including physics and regulations. It provides examples of various types of limitations, such as airspeed, weight and balance, takeoff performance, and engine limitations. The presentation aims to help instructors understand limitations and how to teach their students to operate safely within the limitations of their aircraft.
The document discusses mast bumping in helicopters. Mast bumping occurs when the rotor head impacts the main rotor shaft, usually due to excessive flapping caused by flying outside the helicopter's safe operating envelope. It most commonly affects two-bladed rotor systems. Mast bumping can result from abrupt cyclic or collective control inputs combined with low or negative G-forces. Under these conditions, there is little thrust generated and the fuselage rolls uncontrollably due to the tail rotor thrust. To recover, positive load must be restored to the rotor by applying back cyclic and collective pitch.
This document provides an overview of aircraft weight and balance processes. It defines key terms like center of gravity, moment, and maximum weights. It discusses how weight and balance must be managed on aircraft like the F-16 to ensure safety. The document demonstrates a weight and balance check on a Cessna 206 and uses iFly software to show a computational example on a Falcon 900EX. It emphasizes that operating within weight and balance limits is critical to flight safety.
There has been an extensive use of Helicopters in the Indian military which has brought commendable success in the field of defence. The Helicopter Ejection System that this proposal is going to describe, will help pilots when they are stuck in a falling bird.
The document discusses the design and CFD analysis of a blended wing body (BWB) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with high lift devices. It provides background on the BWB concept, which merges the fuselage and wing into a single lifting body to improve aerodynamic efficiency. The project involves designing a BWB UAV using CATIA, meshing it in ANSYS, and performing CFD analysis in ANSYS CFX to analyze aerodynamic forces and flow patterns with and without high lift devices at different angles of attack. The results are compared to study the effects of the high lift devices on lift, drag and stall angle.
A simple fact of the aircraft resale market is that aircraft with missing documents usually sell for significantly less than those with continual chronological history. At best, expensive maintenance procedures may have to be reperformed and properly documented in order to return the aircraft to airworthy status. With a standardized Records Archive Management, you can control, collaborate, and safeguard the value of the aircraft records.
This document summarizes a presentation given by the FAASTeam to pilots and instructors on stall and spin awareness and avoidance. The presentation covers topics like normal and crosswind takeoffs, slow flight, steep turns, stalls, landings, and go-arounds. It discusses common errors during these maneuvers, such as improper pitch control, failure to maintain a stabilized approach, and inadequate compensation for wind. The goal is to help pilots identify strengths and weaknesses and reduce the risk of accidents during takeoff, landing, and low-altitude maneuvering. Quizzes are included to reinforce key concepts.
This document provides an overview of basic aerodynamics and flight controls. It explains the four main forces that act on aircraft - lift, gravity/weight, thrust, and drag. It describes how control surfaces like the ailerons, elevators, and rudder are used to control the aircraft's roll, pitch, and yaw. Finally, it gives a brief tour of common flight instruments that provide information to pilots like airspeed, altitude, heading, and vertical speed. The goal is to help readers understand how aircraft fly and how pilots control and navigate them.
The document discusses mast bumping in helicopters. Mast bumping occurs when the rotor head impacts the main rotor shaft, usually due to excessive flapping caused by flying outside the helicopter's safe operating envelope. It most commonly affects two-bladed rotor systems. Mast bumping can result from abrupt cyclic or collective control inputs combined with low or negative G-forces. Under these conditions, there is little thrust generated and the fuselage rolls uncontrollably due to the tail rotor thrust. To recover, positive load must be restored to the rotor by applying back cyclic and collective pitch.
This document provides an overview of aircraft weight and balance processes. It defines key terms like center of gravity, moment, and maximum weights. It discusses how weight and balance must be managed on aircraft like the F-16 to ensure safety. The document demonstrates a weight and balance check on a Cessna 206 and uses iFly software to show a computational example on a Falcon 900EX. It emphasizes that operating within weight and balance limits is critical to flight safety.
There has been an extensive use of Helicopters in the Indian military which has brought commendable success in the field of defence. The Helicopter Ejection System that this proposal is going to describe, will help pilots when they are stuck in a falling bird.
The document discusses the design and CFD analysis of a blended wing body (BWB) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with high lift devices. It provides background on the BWB concept, which merges the fuselage and wing into a single lifting body to improve aerodynamic efficiency. The project involves designing a BWB UAV using CATIA, meshing it in ANSYS, and performing CFD analysis in ANSYS CFX to analyze aerodynamic forces and flow patterns with and without high lift devices at different angles of attack. The results are compared to study the effects of the high lift devices on lift, drag and stall angle.
A simple fact of the aircraft resale market is that aircraft with missing documents usually sell for significantly less than those with continual chronological history. At best, expensive maintenance procedures may have to be reperformed and properly documented in order to return the aircraft to airworthy status. With a standardized Records Archive Management, you can control, collaborate, and safeguard the value of the aircraft records.
This document summarizes a presentation given by the FAASTeam to pilots and instructors on stall and spin awareness and avoidance. The presentation covers topics like normal and crosswind takeoffs, slow flight, steep turns, stalls, landings, and go-arounds. It discusses common errors during these maneuvers, such as improper pitch control, failure to maintain a stabilized approach, and inadequate compensation for wind. The goal is to help pilots identify strengths and weaknesses and reduce the risk of accidents during takeoff, landing, and low-altitude maneuvering. Quizzes are included to reinforce key concepts.
This document provides an overview of basic aerodynamics and flight controls. It explains the four main forces that act on aircraft - lift, gravity/weight, thrust, and drag. It describes how control surfaces like the ailerons, elevators, and rudder are used to control the aircraft's roll, pitch, and yaw. Finally, it gives a brief tour of common flight instruments that provide information to pilots like airspeed, altitude, heading, and vertical speed. The goal is to help readers understand how aircraft fly and how pilots control and navigate them.
The document provides an overview of requirements for airworthiness management as per Part M, including:
1) The scope and extent of approval for a Continuing Airworthiness Management Organisation (CAMO), which includes developing maintenance programs and managing approvals.
2) Requirements for the Continuing Airworthiness Management Exposition (CAME) that specifies the CAMO's procedures and scope.
3) Requirements for facilities, personnel, and contracting maintenance to approved organisations.
4) Requirements for the CAMO's quality system to monitor compliance and ensure airworthy aircraft.
This document is an aircraft design project report for a twin engine business jet. It includes dimensions, weight configurations, and performance parameters for 20 existing medium business jets analyzed to determine ideal specifications for the new design. Weight estimation was conducted and various design elements were researched and selected, including a cantilever low wing with tapered airfoils. Performance calculations and graphs were included to analyze the 17-seater twin turbofan jet, which will have a maximum speed of 750mph. The report concludes with future work plans and references.
This slide is prepared by me for the students studying in 1st Semester of Aircraft Maintenance Engineering. This is only the the introduction of Maintenance Practices involved in Aircraft Maintenance. Reference is taken from various aviation books and websites. Suggestions are welcome. Pls leave a like
PS- after downloading please don't change the name of author as you will be disregarding all the hard work done by me.
This document provides information about aircraft crashes, including their causes, investigations, and solutions. It begins with an introduction and table of contents. Major sections discuss the chronology of major air crash disasters, how crashes happen, common causes of crashes such as pilot error and mechanical failures, and how crash investigations are conducted. The roles of agencies like the FAA and NTSB in regulating aviation safety and investigating incidents are described. Overall causes of crashes are evaluated, and human error is identified as the leading cause. The document concludes with a bibliography.
The document discusses airport foreign object debris (FOD), including definitions and responsibilities of airports and airlines. It describes common sources of FOD, such as infrastructure degradation, construction materials, and jet blast. Methods for controlling FOD include training, inspections, coordinated maintenance and communication between airports and airlines. New technologies like radar and cameras can also detect FOD on runways and taxiways. The key is an active, team-based effort between all parties to identify, remove and prevent FOD to improve safety.
The document outlines the top 10 causes of general aviation accidents according to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The number one cause is loss of control in flight, often due to environmental conditions, lack of experience, perceptual issues or physical/sensory factors. Other top causes include midair collisions, system component failures, fuel-related issues, controlled flight into terrain, and low altitude operations. The FAA aims to reduce accidents through education and awareness programs, while new technologies are providing pilots with better safety tools.
This document provides an overview of weight and balance concepts for aircraft. It defines key terms like empty weight, useful load, center of gravity, moment, and arm. It explains how weight and balance affects aircraft performance and safety. Maintaining the proper center of gravity is important for longitudinal stability and control. Being over or under weight limits can reduce performance and endurance or cause structural issues. The document also describes how to calculate weight and balance using information in the aircraft's Pilot Operating Handbook.
The document summarizes five common wing planforms - rectangular, elliptical, tapered, swept, and delta wings. It provides examples of aircraft that use each type of wing and notes their aerodynamic efficiencies and manufacturing complexities. Additional wing variations discussed include trapezoidal, ogive, swept back, swept forward, and variable sweep wings.
The document summarizes the basic control systems of an aircraft, including primary, secondary, and auxiliary flight controls. Primary controls include elevators, ailerons, and rudders which control pitch, roll, and yaw respectively. Secondary controls include trim tabs which help balance aircraft forces. Auxiliary controls include flaps, spoilers, and slats which provide additional lift, especially at lower speeds. The document describes the purpose and function of each control surface.
The document compares 4th generation fighters the F-15 and Su-27. It notes that the Su-27 was intended to surpass the F-15 in overall capability with improvements like 10% larger dimensions and engines for greater thrust. The Su-27 also has a more optimized cross-section and internal fuel capacity for comparable range to rivals using external tanks. Both fighters improved maneuverability over previous generations with innovations like larger wings, more powerful engines, and advanced flight control systems.
What are the elements of aircraft performance?
How much thrust do you need?
How fast and how slow can you fly?
#WikiCourses
http://wikicourses.wikispaces.com/Topic+Performance+of+aerospace+vehicles
This document describes a student project to design and fabricate a fly-by-wire system for flight control using an ATmega8 microcontroller and three servo motors. The system takes input from pilot controls like the steering column and foot pedals and sends electronic signals to actuators controlling the flight surfaces. The students' prototype controls the yaw, pitch, and roll of a model aircraft using push switches and servo motors attached to wooden wings to simulate flight control surfaces like elevators and rudders. Simulation and testing confirmed the system could control the servos to rotate between -30 and +30 degrees based on input signals.
BVR combat was, for a long time, dream of both Western and Asian air forces. Today, it seems that the dream has been finally fulfilled; but is that really so?
This document provides an overview of Southwest Airlines, including its history, business model, operations, and future plans. Some key points:
- Southwest Airlines was founded in 1971 and has been profitable for 39 consecutive years, maintaining success through economic downturns that impacted other airlines.
- It operates as a low-cost carrier, focusing on reducing costs through point-to-point routes, owning aircraft, streamlined scheduling, and high asset utilization.
- Southwest owns most of its aircraft fleet rather than leasing to reduce long-term costs. It also only flies Boeing 737s to reduce training and maintenance expenses.
- Marketing emphasizes low fares, customer service, and efficiency to offer an
1) On May 31, 2009, Air France Flight 447 from Rio de Janeiro to Paris crashed in the Atlantic Ocean with 228 people on board.
2) The aircraft's pitot tubes, which measure airspeed, became obstructed with ice crystals, causing the autopilot to disengage and airspeed information to become unreliable.
3) Despite stall warnings, the pilots failed to recognize the stall and continued the nose-up input that caused the aircraft to lose lift and crash into the ocean.
This document discusses key metrics used to analyze airline economics, including available seat kilometers (ASK), revenue passenger kilometers (RPK), load factor, yield, and unit cost. It explains how these metrics are calculated and used in the basic airline profit equation of RPM x Yield - ASM x Unit Cost to determine profitability. Examples are provided to illustrate calculating yield from a given flight scenario and how airlines determine ticket prices based on yield management.
1. The document provides an overview of airside operations at airports, including the organization, key functions, objectives, and activities related to ensuring safety and efficiency.
2. Maintaining safety on airport runways and aprons through inspection, permitting, incident investigation, and coordination with airport stakeholders are some of the main responsibilities of airside operations.
3. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are used to communicate essential information about airport conditions or temporary changes and are issued according to standard formats and procedures.
The document summarizes specifications for the Boeing 787-10 Dreamliner aircraft. It was first flown in 2005, costs $32 billion to produce, and 247 have been built as of 2015. Key specifications include a maximum speed of 954 km/h, maximum takeoff weight of 252,651 kg, and capacity of 323 passengers. The 787 uses Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engines with 76,000 lbf of thrust. It has a fly-by-wire control system and two head-up displays in the cockpit. The interior has options for first class beds that convert to a full flat bed, business class with dual touchscreens, and economy class with laptop power and Wi-Fi. The 7
The document provides an analysis of JetBlue Airlines. It discusses JetBlue's founding, competitive strategy, strengths and weaknesses. Key points include:
- JetBlue was founded in 2000 and had significant financial success in its early years, achieving profits while other airlines lost billions.
- It differentiates itself from competitors like Southwest by offering amenities like seat-back TVs and leather seats.
- JetBlue keeps costs low through efficiencies like operating a standardized fleet and selling tickets exclusively online.
- Though it faces threats from larger competitors, JetBlue has significant strengths in management, customer focus, and low costs relative to the industry.
This document presents the design of a conceptual dual-role aircraft capable of short-haul and long-haul missions. It describes the initial weight estimation, aerodynamic analysis, performance modeling, geometry design, stability and control assessment, and conclusion that the aircraft meets the mission requirements. The appendices provide details on the mission profiles, weight breakdown, aerodynamic calculations, drag polars, performance parameters, geometry dimensions, propulsion specifications, and stability analysis.
This document is from a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) workshop for Certified Flight Instructors (CFIs) that focuses on takeoffs and landings. It discusses how most fatal accidents occur during the maneuvering phase of flight, including takeoff and landing. It emphasizes the importance of practicing stall, slow flight and spin recovery, as these maneuvers are where pilots are most vulnerable. The document also covers factors that can lead to distractions in the traffic pattern, techniques to improve survivability in crashes, and the importance of go-arounds and avoiding risky maneuvers like low-level aerobatics near airports.
EASA oversees aviation safety in the EU and is responsible for certifying aircraft and licensing pilots. The document discusses how EASA's regulations may apply to suborbital and orbital aircraft flights in the EU. It notes challenges in applying current aviation rules to these new types of flights and that special conditions may need to be developed. EASA would play a key role in certification and licensing for these flights if they are determined to fall under EU aviation law.
The document provides an overview of requirements for airworthiness management as per Part M, including:
1) The scope and extent of approval for a Continuing Airworthiness Management Organisation (CAMO), which includes developing maintenance programs and managing approvals.
2) Requirements for the Continuing Airworthiness Management Exposition (CAME) that specifies the CAMO's procedures and scope.
3) Requirements for facilities, personnel, and contracting maintenance to approved organisations.
4) Requirements for the CAMO's quality system to monitor compliance and ensure airworthy aircraft.
This document is an aircraft design project report for a twin engine business jet. It includes dimensions, weight configurations, and performance parameters for 20 existing medium business jets analyzed to determine ideal specifications for the new design. Weight estimation was conducted and various design elements were researched and selected, including a cantilever low wing with tapered airfoils. Performance calculations and graphs were included to analyze the 17-seater twin turbofan jet, which will have a maximum speed of 750mph. The report concludes with future work plans and references.
This slide is prepared by me for the students studying in 1st Semester of Aircraft Maintenance Engineering. This is only the the introduction of Maintenance Practices involved in Aircraft Maintenance. Reference is taken from various aviation books and websites. Suggestions are welcome. Pls leave a like
PS- after downloading please don't change the name of author as you will be disregarding all the hard work done by me.
This document provides information about aircraft crashes, including their causes, investigations, and solutions. It begins with an introduction and table of contents. Major sections discuss the chronology of major air crash disasters, how crashes happen, common causes of crashes such as pilot error and mechanical failures, and how crash investigations are conducted. The roles of agencies like the FAA and NTSB in regulating aviation safety and investigating incidents are described. Overall causes of crashes are evaluated, and human error is identified as the leading cause. The document concludes with a bibliography.
The document discusses airport foreign object debris (FOD), including definitions and responsibilities of airports and airlines. It describes common sources of FOD, such as infrastructure degradation, construction materials, and jet blast. Methods for controlling FOD include training, inspections, coordinated maintenance and communication between airports and airlines. New technologies like radar and cameras can also detect FOD on runways and taxiways. The key is an active, team-based effort between all parties to identify, remove and prevent FOD to improve safety.
The document outlines the top 10 causes of general aviation accidents according to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The number one cause is loss of control in flight, often due to environmental conditions, lack of experience, perceptual issues or physical/sensory factors. Other top causes include midair collisions, system component failures, fuel-related issues, controlled flight into terrain, and low altitude operations. The FAA aims to reduce accidents through education and awareness programs, while new technologies are providing pilots with better safety tools.
This document provides an overview of weight and balance concepts for aircraft. It defines key terms like empty weight, useful load, center of gravity, moment, and arm. It explains how weight and balance affects aircraft performance and safety. Maintaining the proper center of gravity is important for longitudinal stability and control. Being over or under weight limits can reduce performance and endurance or cause structural issues. The document also describes how to calculate weight and balance using information in the aircraft's Pilot Operating Handbook.
The document summarizes five common wing planforms - rectangular, elliptical, tapered, swept, and delta wings. It provides examples of aircraft that use each type of wing and notes their aerodynamic efficiencies and manufacturing complexities. Additional wing variations discussed include trapezoidal, ogive, swept back, swept forward, and variable sweep wings.
The document summarizes the basic control systems of an aircraft, including primary, secondary, and auxiliary flight controls. Primary controls include elevators, ailerons, and rudders which control pitch, roll, and yaw respectively. Secondary controls include trim tabs which help balance aircraft forces. Auxiliary controls include flaps, spoilers, and slats which provide additional lift, especially at lower speeds. The document describes the purpose and function of each control surface.
The document compares 4th generation fighters the F-15 and Su-27. It notes that the Su-27 was intended to surpass the F-15 in overall capability with improvements like 10% larger dimensions and engines for greater thrust. The Su-27 also has a more optimized cross-section and internal fuel capacity for comparable range to rivals using external tanks. Both fighters improved maneuverability over previous generations with innovations like larger wings, more powerful engines, and advanced flight control systems.
What are the elements of aircraft performance?
How much thrust do you need?
How fast and how slow can you fly?
#WikiCourses
http://wikicourses.wikispaces.com/Topic+Performance+of+aerospace+vehicles
This document describes a student project to design and fabricate a fly-by-wire system for flight control using an ATmega8 microcontroller and three servo motors. The system takes input from pilot controls like the steering column and foot pedals and sends electronic signals to actuators controlling the flight surfaces. The students' prototype controls the yaw, pitch, and roll of a model aircraft using push switches and servo motors attached to wooden wings to simulate flight control surfaces like elevators and rudders. Simulation and testing confirmed the system could control the servos to rotate between -30 and +30 degrees based on input signals.
BVR combat was, for a long time, dream of both Western and Asian air forces. Today, it seems that the dream has been finally fulfilled; but is that really so?
This document provides an overview of Southwest Airlines, including its history, business model, operations, and future plans. Some key points:
- Southwest Airlines was founded in 1971 and has been profitable for 39 consecutive years, maintaining success through economic downturns that impacted other airlines.
- It operates as a low-cost carrier, focusing on reducing costs through point-to-point routes, owning aircraft, streamlined scheduling, and high asset utilization.
- Southwest owns most of its aircraft fleet rather than leasing to reduce long-term costs. It also only flies Boeing 737s to reduce training and maintenance expenses.
- Marketing emphasizes low fares, customer service, and efficiency to offer an
1) On May 31, 2009, Air France Flight 447 from Rio de Janeiro to Paris crashed in the Atlantic Ocean with 228 people on board.
2) The aircraft's pitot tubes, which measure airspeed, became obstructed with ice crystals, causing the autopilot to disengage and airspeed information to become unreliable.
3) Despite stall warnings, the pilots failed to recognize the stall and continued the nose-up input that caused the aircraft to lose lift and crash into the ocean.
This document discusses key metrics used to analyze airline economics, including available seat kilometers (ASK), revenue passenger kilometers (RPK), load factor, yield, and unit cost. It explains how these metrics are calculated and used in the basic airline profit equation of RPM x Yield - ASM x Unit Cost to determine profitability. Examples are provided to illustrate calculating yield from a given flight scenario and how airlines determine ticket prices based on yield management.
1. The document provides an overview of airside operations at airports, including the organization, key functions, objectives, and activities related to ensuring safety and efficiency.
2. Maintaining safety on airport runways and aprons through inspection, permitting, incident investigation, and coordination with airport stakeholders are some of the main responsibilities of airside operations.
3. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are used to communicate essential information about airport conditions or temporary changes and are issued according to standard formats and procedures.
The document summarizes specifications for the Boeing 787-10 Dreamliner aircraft. It was first flown in 2005, costs $32 billion to produce, and 247 have been built as of 2015. Key specifications include a maximum speed of 954 km/h, maximum takeoff weight of 252,651 kg, and capacity of 323 passengers. The 787 uses Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 engines with 76,000 lbf of thrust. It has a fly-by-wire control system and two head-up displays in the cockpit. The interior has options for first class beds that convert to a full flat bed, business class with dual touchscreens, and economy class with laptop power and Wi-Fi. The 7
The document provides an analysis of JetBlue Airlines. It discusses JetBlue's founding, competitive strategy, strengths and weaknesses. Key points include:
- JetBlue was founded in 2000 and had significant financial success in its early years, achieving profits while other airlines lost billions.
- It differentiates itself from competitors like Southwest by offering amenities like seat-back TVs and leather seats.
- JetBlue keeps costs low through efficiencies like operating a standardized fleet and selling tickets exclusively online.
- Though it faces threats from larger competitors, JetBlue has significant strengths in management, customer focus, and low costs relative to the industry.
This document presents the design of a conceptual dual-role aircraft capable of short-haul and long-haul missions. It describes the initial weight estimation, aerodynamic analysis, performance modeling, geometry design, stability and control assessment, and conclusion that the aircraft meets the mission requirements. The appendices provide details on the mission profiles, weight breakdown, aerodynamic calculations, drag polars, performance parameters, geometry dimensions, propulsion specifications, and stability analysis.
This document is from a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) workshop for Certified Flight Instructors (CFIs) that focuses on takeoffs and landings. It discusses how most fatal accidents occur during the maneuvering phase of flight, including takeoff and landing. It emphasizes the importance of practicing stall, slow flight and spin recovery, as these maneuvers are where pilots are most vulnerable. The document also covers factors that can lead to distractions in the traffic pattern, techniques to improve survivability in crashes, and the importance of go-arounds and avoiding risky maneuvers like low-level aerobatics near airports.
EASA oversees aviation safety in the EU and is responsible for certifying aircraft and licensing pilots. The document discusses how EASA's regulations may apply to suborbital and orbital aircraft flights in the EU. It notes challenges in applying current aviation rules to these new types of flights and that special conditions may need to be developed. EASA would play a key role in certification and licensing for these flights if they are determined to fall under EU aviation law.
Human performance and limitation revisedabu afifah
The document discusses human physiology and performance as it relates to flying, covering topics like the respiratory system, effects of altitude on oxygen levels, symptoms of hypoxia, hyperventilation, and barotrauma. It provides an overview of how the body uses oxygen and the consequences of reduced ambient pressure at altitude, such as impaired judgement and loss of consciousness. The summary aims to provide pilots with knowledge on human factors and limitations for safe flying.
1. The document explains the phenomenon of wind shear, which is a change in wind speed and/or direction over a short distance that can occur horizontally or vertically.
2. Wind shear is most commonly caused by frontal activity, thunderstorms, temperature inversions, and surface obstructions and can drastically alter an aircraft's lift, airspeed, and thrust requirements during landing approaches.
3. The effects of wind shear on aircraft are explained, including how a pilot may overcorrect and land long or have insufficient altitude to recover if wind shear is encountered too low. Learning about wind shear can help pilots safely handle encounters and avoid accidents.
The document discusses the composition and evolution of Earth's atmosphere. It notes that early Earth had a reducing atmosphere composed of gases like methane and ammonia released from volcanoes. Through photosynthesis over billions of years, oxygen levels rose which allowed the development of more complex life. The atmosphere protects life and influences climate and weather patterns through greenhouse gases and the global circulation of air masses.
The document discusses speeds that are important for takeoff performance of JAR 25 aircraft. It defines key speeds such as stall speed, minimum control speeds on the ground and in the air, engine failure speed, minimum unstick speed, lift-off speed, maximum tire speed, and maximum brake energy absorption speed. It also discusses operative speeds used for takeoff including decision speed (V1), rotation speed (VR), and takeoff safety speed (V2). Factors that can affect takeoff performance and speeds are also summarized such as flap setting, runway slope, wind, density altitude, aircraft systems, and runway contamination.
This document defines key distances related to aircraft takeoff and landing performance. It discusses:
- Screen height definitions for different aircraft types
- Definitions for runway, stopway, and clearway areas
- Declared distances including TORA, TODA, ASDA, and LDA that define available field lengths
- Required distances including TORR, TODR, and ASDR that must be met for safe takeoff and landing
- How to determine a balanced field length takeoff where TODR and ASDR are equal versus an unbalanced takeoff that takes advantage of a stopway or clearway.
1) Climb performance analysis considers factors like thrust, drag, lift, weight and airspeed that determine an aircraft's rate of climb and optimal climb speeds. Maximum angle and rate of climb speeds (Vx and Vy) are evaluated.
2) Factors like pressure altitude, temperature, and weight affect an aircraft's climb capability and rate of climb. Ceilings like service ceiling and design ceiling also limit maximum altitude.
3) For long flights, step climbs are used where the aircraft periodically climbs to higher altitudes to stay close to its optimal cruise altitude as weight decreases from fuel burn.
The document discusses aircraft hydraulic systems. It describes how a basic hydraulic system works by using valves and pistons to move control surfaces. It then notes that hydraulic systems are used for flight control and moving structures like flaps, landing gear, and weapons bays by providing extra force. The document lists common hydraulic fluid specifications and pressure ranges. It identifies problems with hydraulic systems like their weight, maintenance costs, and space requirements. Finally, it discusses potential improvements like electric actuators and electro-mechanical actuators that could address these issues.
The document discusses different types of aircraft inlets. It describes subsonic and convergent inlets that can handle speeds up to Mach 1.2, as well as supersonic inlets that can handle speeds up to Mach 4. It also discusses inlet features like sand and ice separators. The document outlines common ice protection systems, including hot air, electrical, and hot oil systems, to prevent ice buildup that could disrupt airflow.
This document provides an overview of hydraulic systems used in aircraft. It describes how hydraulic systems use incompressible liquids and pumps to transmit energy and power various aircraft components. It then lists some common uses of hydraulic systems in aircraft, such as for gun turrets, auto pilots, shock absorption, brakes, doors and landing gear. The document proceeds to explain the basic principles and components of hydraulic systems, including reservoirs, accumulators, filters, pumps, valves and actuating cylinders.
This document provides information on basic aerodynamic principles including:
- The four main forces acting on an aeroplane in level flight are lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Lift opposes weight and thrust opposes drag to maintain equilibrium.
- Lift depends on factors like airspeed, air density, wing shape, angle of attack. It can be calculated using a formula involving coefficient of lift.
- Thrust directly opposes drag. Power is the rate of doing work and is the product of thrust and true airspeed.
- Drag has two main components - induced drag from wingtip vortices and profile (parasite) drag from friction and interference. Total drag is the sum
Shock waves are mechanical waves that require an elastic medium like water, air, or tissue to propagate. There are two main types of shock waves: focused shock waves, which have a steep pressure rise and higher energy density; and radial shock waves, which have a lower energy density. Focused shock waves can be generated using electromagnetic or piezoelectric technologies and have penetration depths between 15-50 mm, while radial shock waves use pulse transmitters and can penetrate deeper into tissues.
1. The document contains 31 multiple choice questions about basic aerodynamics and atmospheric physics. It covers topics like the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), how pressure, temperature, and density vary with altitude, humidity, speed of sound, and more.
2. For each question there are 3 answer options and an explanation of the correct answer. The questions assess understanding of fundamental concepts like how pressure decreases exponentially with altitude rather than at a constant rate.
3. Key facts covered include that pressure is half of sea level value at 18,000 feet, temperature lapse rate is 1.98°C per 1,000 feet, tropopause is at 36,000 feet, and sea level pressure is 1013
EASA Part 66 Module 15.2 : Engine Performancesoulstalker
This document discusses various aspects of engine performance including:
- Thrust is generated through momentum thrust, net thrust accounts for momentum drag, and choked nozzles add pressure thrust.
- Thrust distribution varies across engine sections and can be calculated based on exit area, pressure, velocity and mass flow.
- Horsepower calculations relate thrust to aircraft speed or shaft power for different engine types.
- Specific fuel consumption measures the fuel required to produce thrust during cruise conditions.
The document outlines the aircraft design process from initial requirements definition through detailed design, testing, and certification. It discusses establishing basic and general requirements, conducting feasibility studies, specifying detailed requirements, conceptual and preliminary design phases involving configuration selection, performance modeling, and optimization. Later phases include detailed design, ground and flight testing, and certification to clear the aircraft for intended operations. The process is iterative with frequent trade-offs and refinement of requirements and design.
The document provides information on EASA Part-145 regulations for aircraft maintenance organizations, including a new available version that includes an amendment from the EU Commission. It includes links to acquire the amended version. The regulations cover the approval and oversight of maintenance organizations, setting requirements for facilities, personnel, maintenance procedures, record keeping, and more. An organization provides consolidated versions of the regulations along with acceptable means of compliance and guidance material to help organizations comply.
This document discusses shock waves. It defines shock waves as thin regions where supersonic flow is rapidly decelerated to subsonic flow through an adiabatic but non-isentropic process. There are three types of shock waves discussed: normal shock waves, which are perpendicular to flow; oblique shock waves, which are at an angle to flow; and curved shock waves. Examples of normal shock wave formation and oblique shock wave applications in aircraft are provided. Over-expanded and under-expanded flows through converging-diverging ducts are also summarized.
Procedure of carrying out aircraft weight and balance in a wide body commerci...Lahiru Dilshan
1. Aircraft weight and balance is critical for safety and efficiency. The center of gravity must be properly calculated based on the mass distribution of all components.
2. Improper loading can reduce aircraft performance and safety margins. It can cause issues like reduced rate of climb and stalling. In severe cases, it could even lead to catastrophic failure.
3. Weighing a large commercial aircraft involves preparing it inside a hangar, draining fluids, leveling it on scales, and measuring weights at different points to calculate the center of gravity. Temporary and permanent ballast are used to adjust the balance if needed.
This document contains the text from a Federal Aviation Administration workshop on risk management for flight instructors. It discusses topics like defining risk, hazard, and risk assessment. It provides examples of accidents and the probable causes being related to pilot decision making. It emphasizes the importance of teaching pilots to identify risks, evaluate hazards, and make informed decisions using risk management processes and checklists. The document also contains several scenarios to help stimulate decision making skills in trainees.
Apresentação sobre aviação executiva em nyEmbraer RI
The document discusses Embraer's plans to expand its business aviation product portfolio and services. It summarizes the current market outlook and new business models in private aviation. It then provides updates on Embraer's Phenom 100 and 300 light jet programs, including design features, market competitiveness, development status and planned entry into service. The Legacy 600 program and potential Lineage 1000 mid-size jet are also briefly outlined.
A Piper PA-28-200 experienced the liberation of about 6 inches of the tip of one propeller blade during landing. An investigation found significant fatigue damage to the cracked blade, likely caused by operating the propeller in a known resonant mode between 2200-2250 RPM. The airplane's tachometer was reading 80 RPM higher than the actual propeller speed, meaning the pilot may have unintentionally operated in the restricted range below 2350 RPM. Mechanical tachometers can lose accuracy over time, allowing a pilot to inadvertently fly in a restricted RPM range that subjects the propeller to damaging vibrations. Pilots should verify tachometer accuracy, be aware of any restricted RPM ranges, and check propellers
My team and I assigned to develop a conceptual design for the aerial decelerator system used to safely land a high-altitude precision airdropped sonobuoy into the the ocean.
This document is a project report that analyzes and redesigns the landing gear of two light aircraft - the Piper PA28 and Grob G115. The report investigated landing gear failures using data from the Civil Aviation Authority. Finite element analysis was conducted on CAD models of the landing gears under different loading conditions. The results showed that three of the four original landing gears failed to meet safety standards. The report then redesigns the failing landing gears by changing materials and designs, and conducts new FEA to analyze if the redesigns meet standards.
This document discusses the use of drones in the legal field and provides an overview of regulations. It notes that drones allow for affordable aerial photography and videography for any size legal case. Regulations currently allow hobbyist drone use but require FAA approval for commercial use. The FAA's proposed Part 107 rules would establish safety regulations for small non-recreational drones under 55 lbs, requiring operator certification, daytime-only visual line-of-sight operation, and maximum speeds and altitudes of 100 mph and 400 feet. The document provides resources on current state drone laws and organizations like the AMA that advocate for drone use.
This document discusses the use of drones in the legal field and provides an overview of regulations. It notes that drones allow for affordable aerial photography and videography for any size legal case. Regulations for hobbyist drone use require operating strictly for recreation under AMA guidelines within visual line of sight. Commercial use requires FAA approval as a licensed pilot and operating under proposed Part 107 rules such as daylight-only operation, visual line of sight, maximum airspeed and altitude. The document outlines proposed operator certification requirements and aircraft must be registered and safely maintained. Microdrones under 4.4 pounds may have additional operational flexibility with certification. Overall, the document presents the opportunity drones provide for legal applications and summarizes current and proposed regulations.
This document discusses the use of drones in the legal field and provides an overview of regulations. It notes that drones allow for affordable aerial photography and videography for any size legal case. Regulations currently allow hobbyist drone use but require FAA approval for commercial use. The FAA's proposed Part 107 rules would establish safety regulations for small non-recreational drones under 55 lbs, requiring operator certification, daytime-only visual line-of-sight operation, and no flying over people or in restricted airspace without permission. The document provides resources on current state drone laws and organizations like the AMA that advocate for drone use.
This document discusses the use of drones in the legal field and provides an overview of regulations. It notes that drones allow for affordable aerial photography and videography for any size legal case. Regulations for hobbyist drone use require operating strictly for recreation under AMA guidelines within visual line of sight. Commercial use requires FAA approval as a licensed pilot and operating under proposed Part 107 rules such as daylight-only operation, visual line of sight, maximum airspeed and altitude. The document outlines proposed operator certification requirements and aircraft must be registered and safely maintained. Microdrones under 4.4 pounds may have additional operational flexibility with certification. Overall, the document presents the opportunity drones provide for legal applications and summarizes current and proposed regulations.
The document summarizes the design of an aircraft being developed by San Diego State University for the 2013-2014 AIAA Design Build Fly competition. The aircraft is designed to complete various cargo and medical emergency missions with constraints on power usage and cargo bay size. Key aspects of the aircraft design include using lightweight materials and structures, testing various propulsion configurations, and incorporating a removable cargo bay door and straps to securely carry different payloads. Performance predictions from analysis and results from physical testing are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of Mr. Geoffrey Allen Wardle's airframe design study from 2012-2020 for the ATDA aircraft. It discusses the selection of the wing planform and aerofoil geometry for the ATDA, including parameters like aspect ratio, sweep angle, taper ratio, and thickness-to-chord ratio. It also outlines the process used to determine values for the mean aerodynamic chord length, wing area, root and tip chords, aerodynamic center, and center of gravity.
This document provides information from a 2011 FAA workshop for certified flight instructors on teaching sport pilots. It defines light sport aircraft and the sport pilot certificate. It outlines the rules for aircraft categories, medical requirements, aeronautical experience needed, privileges and limits of the sport pilot certificate. It discusses who can provide instruction to sport pilots and the similar training approach compared to private pilots.
The document summarizes EA-18G Growler sea trials conducted on USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN 69). Over 2,400 test points were conducted over 5 days involving 420 approaches and 63 traps, testing the aircraft in various configurations and conditions. Key results included full certification of the EA-18G for precision approaches and carrier operations. Lessons learned included the need for improved planning and coordination for future developmental tests conducted in an operational carrier environment.
This document provides an overview of sport aviation safety from a presentation given by Scott R. Landorf of the FAA. It discusses key topics like light sport aircraft, experimental amateur-built aircraft, accident data, transition training, preflight considerations, and conducting the first flight of an experimental aircraft safely. The goal is to familiarize pilots with sport aircraft and provide information to help reduce accidents. Emphasis is placed on pilot skills, proficiency, understanding aircraft limitations, preflight planning, and following a flight test plan for experimental aircraft.
Sea trials involve 10 important tests to ensure a newly built ship meets safety and contractual requirements before delivery. The tests include measuring draft and speed, testing anchors, steering, main engines, stopping ability, backup generators, and navigation equipment. Conducting thorough sea trials identifies any issues so the shipyard can make corrections to deliver a conforming vessel.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation on landing gear arrangement analysis. It discusses different landing gear configurations, including tricycle and taildragger arrangements. It also examines factors like landing gear height, steering systems, shock absorbers, and case studies of the Cessna 172, Boeing 757, and F-14 Tomcat. The conclusion compares the shock absorber stroke lengths between these aircraft, finding that the Cessna 172 has the shortest at 0.21 meters while the F-14 Tomcat has the longest at 0.55 meters due to its higher design landing speeds.
What Do You Do When The Pilots Shut Down The Wrong Engine?Bob Mayer
And the other engine is the one that is malfunctioning? Yes. It happened. This slideshow presents the sequence of events and the six cascades that led to the final crash. Mechanical failure, pilot error, and more all contributed to this event.
Similar to CFI Workshop - Module 6 Aircraft Limitations (20)
A smart cockpit is available right now, and progress will accelerate as more manufacturers and aircraft owners adopt Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) technology.
Smart Cockpit Technology: Industry to research and develop smart cockpit technology that helps identify emergency situations, prompts pilots (aurally/visually) through pertinent checklist items, and provides instructions based on aircraft position and condition of flight.
Having fun means flying safely! Hobby or recreational flying doesn't require FAA approval but you must follow safety guidelines. Any other use requires FAA authorization.
Avoid doing anything hazardous to other airplanes or people and property on the ground.
Angle of attack (AOA) indicators can help reduce loss of control accidents by providing pilots with a better way to avoid stalls. Loss of control is the leading cause of fatal accidents in general and commercial aviation, averaging one fatal accident every four days in general aviation alone. While airspeed is taught as the primary means of avoiding stalls, airspeed alone is not reliable because an aircraft can stall at any speed, attitude, or power setting. AOA is a better indicator because the critical angle of attack at which an aircraft will stall does not change with factors like weight, temperature, or altitude. AOA indicators alert pilots when the aircraft approaches stall parameters. Their use, along with existing systems, can result in more precise
To reduce the risk of accidents due to weather related factors, pilots should rely upon accurate real-time weather
reporting and learn about weather reporting technologies currently available.
According to the Joseph T. Nall report (produced by AOPA’s Air Safety Institute), 89 accidents occurred in 2010 as a result of fuel exhaustion; 11 of them fatal. And despite a decline in fuel management accidents through 2008, more recently those numbers have been reversing, accounting for eight percent of all accidents in 2010
Transition training is important for pilots moving between aircraft types to learn the differences in systems, performance, procedures, and limitations. An effective transition training program involves following a structured syllabus with a qualified instructor and focuses on what is different about the new aircraft, including systems, normal and emergency procedures, performance characteristics, and limitations. Transition training helps ensure pilots can safely operate the new aircraft type.
Flight Data Monitoring (FDM) systems allow pilots to collect and review flight information in real time or after a flight. Modern avionics can provide data similar to airline recorders, including engine parameters and control surface movements. Pilots can use FDM data and overlay it on charts to analyze how precisely they flew routes and approaches. This helps identify areas for improvement. FDM also provides helpful data on aircraft health by monitoring parameters and trends over multiple flights, which can help mechanics identify issues and save owners money on maintenance. In summary, FDM is a useful tool that helps pilots improve skills and maintain aircraft well-being through collection and review of flight data.
So what is single-pilot resource management? The FAA Risk Management Handbook notes that SRM is defined as the art of managing all the resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources) available to a pilot prior to and during flight to ensure a successful flight
More than 25 percent of general aviation fatal accidents occur during the maneuvering phase of flight — turning, climbing, or descending close to the ground. The vast majority of these accidents involve stall/spin scenarios (half of which are while in the traffic pattern) and buzzing attempts.
Returning to flight operations after a period of inactivity has resulted in loss of control accidents. But with a solid plan and determination, you can get back to enjoying the freedom only flying can offer.
The document is a presentation by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) about pilot deviations. It discusses general information about pilot deviations, statistics on common deviations, reasons for deviations occurring, how pilots should respond if involved in a deviation, and the FAA's investigative process. The presentation provides an overview of pilot deviations to educate pilots and flight schools.
This document provides an overview of flight training accidents and incidents analyzed by the Orlando Flight Standards District Office from 1998 to 2014. It identifies trends in the data, including that 71% of accidents and incidents were related to landings. The summary highlights areas for improvement such as emphasizing landings in instruction and evaluations. It also examines accident factors for other aircraft types like gliders and helicopters. The goal is to continue initiatives that have reduced accidents while maintaining a focus on landing safety.
Runway incursions are a serious safety concern and significantly impact safe operations at any airport. Incursions, which also can occur on taxiways although not considered runway incursions, have involved air carrier aircraft, military planes, general aviation aircraft, air traffic controllers, ground vehicles and pedestrians.
The May/June 2014 issue of FAA Safety Briefing is all about Airworthiness Certification and Standards. In this issue we look at the hidden dangers of layering supplemental type certificates (STC), who to go to when your plane has an issue, and how to take care of an aging aircraft. In addition, you can learn more about the airworthiness directive process and how to apply for an STC.
This document from the FAA presents information on angle of attack systems for pilots. It notes that stalls and resulting spin accidents are a major cause of fatal crashes, often involving inexperienced pilots, and can occur at any airspeed or phase of flight. The document discusses problems determining airspeed, describes angle of attack indicators that can help avoid stalls, and recommends pilots practice stalls and slow flight with a flight instructor. It provides resources for pilots to investigate angle of attack systems further.
This document discusses flight after a period of inactivity for pilots. It addresses currency and proficiency concerns when returning to flight after time away. Pilots should consider how long they have been inactive, the nature of their operations, and their experience level. Upon returning, pilots may need to refresh their knowledge by reviewing regulations and manuals since some aircraft panels and apps have been updated. They should also confirm their medical certification is still valid before their first flight.
The FAA holds official forums at its Southern Region Safety Center located at the corner of Laird Drive and Sun 'n Fun Drive in the middle of the exhibit area. The forums are open daily from 8:00 am to 3:00 pm, with a schedule of presentations from 8:30 am to 2:00 pm from Tuesday, April 1st through Friday, April 5th. Topics include maintenance accidents, fuel management, intercepted aircraft, hypoxia awareness, safety investigations, and more. Updates to the schedule can be found by scanning the QR code or going to the listed website.
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CFI Workshop - Module 6 Aircraft Limitations
1. Presented to: CFI Workshops
By: The FAASTeam
Date: January 1, 2012
Federal Aviation
AdministrationCFI Workshop 6
Core Topic 12
Airworthiness
Limitations
Where do they Really
come from?
2. 2Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
You can’t beat the laws of Physics
• 1 June 2010, 1705 hrs, Anchorage, AK
• Pilot
– age 33
– Commercial, single-engine land & sea
– 1718 hours TT, 81 hours make & model
• Phase of flight
– Takeoff / climb out
3. 3Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
You can’t beat the laws of Physics
• Aircraft
– Cessna 1976 U206F
– Souls on board – 5
– Maximum allowable take off weight - 3,600 Lbs.
– Empty weight – 2165.5
– Useful load – 1434.5
– Fuel, occupants, & cargo weight – 2092.7
• Pilot’s estimate – 1,400 – 1,450 Lbs
– Takeoff weight – 4258.2
• 658 over max & 3.95 – 8.22 In. aft of cg limit
4. 4Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
You can’t beat the laws of Physics
http://dms.ntsb.gov/aviation/AccidentReports/v233vt4542baswfpmqymx
q451/R07052011120000.pdf
5. 5Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Where do limitations Come From?
• Physics
– Example: The maximum rate of climb that an airplane is
capable of is governed by the forces on it. Wing area, power,
and thrust all influence the rate of climb.
– Violating limitations imposed by physics typically results in bent
metal.
• Regulation
– Establishes legal limitations based on the rules that the
airplane was certified under.
– Regulatory limitations are based on physics, but usually have a
safety factor added.
– Example: 23.65 says “Each normal, utility … must have a
minimum climb gradient of at least 8.3 % for land planes or 6.7
% for seaplanes…… “ (at maximum gross weight)
6. 6Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
We’ll discuss:
– Weight and c.g. limitations
– Landing and Take off performance
– Stall Speed
– Airspeed limitations
– Power Plant limitations
– How Floats affect limits
– How Skis affect limits
13. 14Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
What’s the consequence of operating above
VNE?
A. Catastrophic airframe failure
B. Unknown & untested
C. Irreversable airframe stress
VNE
14. Federal Aviation
Administration
15
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Examples of Airspeed Limits
Flaps Up Stall Speed
(at gross weight)
Flaps Down Stall Speed
(at gross weight)
-
Vne, Never Exceed
15. Federal Aviation
Administration
16
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Examples of Airspeed Limits
Flaps Up Stall Speed
(at gross weight)
Flaps Down Stall Speed
(at gross weight)
Vf, Max Flap Extension Speed
-
Vne, Never Exceed
16. Federal Aviation
Administration
17
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Examples of Airspeed Limits
Flaps Up Stall Speed
(at gross weight)
Flaps Down Stall Speed
(at gross weight)
Vf, Max Flap Extension Speed
-
Vc, cruise speed
Vne, Never Exceed
17. 23Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Airspeed Limits
• Va is the design maneuvering airspeed at
which the airplane will be able to do a limit
maneuver without stalling. (3.8 g for normal
category airplanes)
18. 24Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Airspeed Limits - True or False
1. The bottom of the Yellow arc is the airspeed above which the
airplane is at risk of damage from a 50 fps gust.
True and gusts in excess of 25 fps are common.
2. If the Air is turbulent, Slow down to below the yellow arc.
Also true. Operating in the yellow arc with any turbulence is
very stressful to the aircraft.
3. If an airplane has been flown in severe turbulence above VC,
additional inspection should be conducted.
That’s true damage associated with severe turbulence is
common.
4. The installation of larger engines makes it less likely that a
pilot will be able to fly well into the yellow arc.
False – Larger engines make it easier to fly too fast for
conditions
19. 25Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
5. Vne is set by structural considerations as well as flutter.
That’s true. Vne is determined with respect to structural
considerations as well as flutter.
6. Flutter is very sensitive to slop in control systems and to the
balance of the control surfaces. The airplane is certified to Vd
which is 10% over Vne.
This is also true. A light coating of frost was enough to cause
aileron flutter on a CE – 210 in Virginia. The aileron was torn
from the airframe but luckily the pilot was able to land
successfully. If it had been tail flutter the outcome would
have been much worse.
7. The ASI on most GA aircraft is accurate enough to operate
right up to Vne.
Maybe true maybe false. It depends on the health of your
pitot/static system & ASI. The question is though – are you
willing to bet your life on it?
Airspeed Limits - True or False
22. 28Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
The forward C.G. limit is critical for:
A. Nose wheel strength
B. Ability to flare
C. Stall recovery
C. Tail strength
Center of Gravity
24. 30Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Examples of Weight and Balance Limits
Typically based on
climb, strength
Nose Gear limits, ability to
flare, trim
Tail gear structural
limit, stick forces
going to zero, spin
resistance,
longitudinal
stability, can’t push
fwd on balked
landingHorizontal Tail
Strength,
Ability to flare,
Nose Gear
(Center of Gravity)
(weight)
25. 31Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Weight Limits – True or False
1. Maximum gross weight is selected early in the design of most
airplanes and the rest of the airplane is designed around that
number.
Yes – that’s true.
2. Exceeding maximum gross weight routinely can result in
fatigue problems.
You bet – exceeding max gross weight – even by a little bit will
result in fatigue problems. As the fleet ages we’re seeing
more of this.
3. Exceeding maximum gross weight results in lower climb rates
and can result in structural failure.
Well duh – of course we’re going to climb slower but the
insidious thing is the possibility of structural failure.
4. When exceeding Max Gross Wt. Stall speed goes up,
controllability can be reduced, ability to maneuver without
entering an accelerated stall can be reduced.
Yes this is all true when you exceed weight limits.
26. 32Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
5. Structural limits have a 1.5 margin of safety built into them for
unexpected conditions, and to minimize the chances of
having fatigue problems, not because you really wanted to
carry that much stuff.
See the second statement above (Exceeding maximum gross
weight routinely can result in fatigue problems). The safety
margin is there for a reason and the reason is not so you can
overload by 50%.
6. Contrary to rumors, airplanes are not generally capable of
taking a lot more than the required loads. (In many if not
most cases, the existing gross weight limit is set because of a
failure in the static test program.
This is sobering. In many cases the max gross weight limit was
set because the airframe came apart in static testing.
Weight Limits – True or False
27. 33Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Forward c.g. limit
• The forward center of gravity limit (and the
angled limit if present) are typically critical
for:
– Ability to flare during landing.
– Ability of the horizontal tail to take the structural
loads.
– Nose gear loads.
• The installation of heavier engines often
makes airplanes nose heavy and subject to
violating the forward limit.
28. 34Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Aft C.G. Limit
• The aft center of gravity is usually critical
for:
– Spin recovery
– Stick forces
– Balked landing
– Longitudinal and directional stability
– Nose down trim
– Tail Wheel Loads
29. 35Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Takeoff Performance
• Takeoff performance numbers are generated
by an experienced flight test pilot with a lot
of time in the airplane simulating an average
pilot with a new engine. They are often
optimistic with respect to what can be
expected in the field.
• There is no Margin of Safety incorporated
into the published takeoff numbers!
• AOPA recommends that pilots add 50% to
published takeoff distances.
30. 36Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Can I get out of that strip with the moose???
Piano or other heavy object ……….
• Don’t Fly above Gross Weight!!
• Don’t guess – weigh it!
Al Hikes Photo
31. 37Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Can I get out of that strip with the moose???
• Example: PA-18-150 with stock prop
– Flight manual says that the take off run is 200 ft (500 over 50’
obstacle) at 1750 lb.
– What is the take off distance at 2000 lb? (I assume you have the
one ton STC…..)
outmooseoflbgettofeetfactorsafetyAOPAx
feetxfeet
2503905.1260
2603.1200
3.1
1750
2000
2
=
=
=
Weight Ground Run 50’ Obstacle
1750 200 500
2000 260 650
Not including
AOPA 1.5 safety
factor
32. 38Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Weight Ground Run 50’ Obstacle 1.5 Safety
Factor
1750 200 500 300/750
2000 260 650 390/975
Can I get out of that strip with the moose???
33. 39Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Take off wind issues
• Head winds decrease takeoff distances. For
a head wind of 10 % of the take off speed,
the take off distance will be reduced 19%.
(Roughly)
• A tail wind of 10 % of the take off speed will
increase your take off distance by 21%.
• A cross wind will increase your take off
distance. (More drag from control surfaces
and even a direct cross wind has a
headwind component in the crab)
34. 40Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Tail Wind Example
• C-172 sea level 20 deg C short field, hard
surface ground roll 980 ft. 51 knot lift off
speed. Consider a 5 kt tail wind (10% of lift
off speed) 980 x 1.21 = 1186 ft.
• Cessna handbook calculation is 10% for
every 2 knots for the 172. That results in a
distance of 1225 ft. A little more
conservative than the Axioms of flight
estimate.
36. 42Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Crosswind
The maximum demonstrated cross wind component is:
The highest cross wind component demonstrated during flight
testing.
– The ability to handle a cross wind is highly dependent on pilot
and runway conditions. (Especially in gusty conditions)
– There is a point at which the airplane runs out of available
aileron and/or rudder deflection.
– When the controls are at their stops, pilot ability no longer
matters.
– 14 CFR part 23.233 requires that all airplanes be able to land
in a cross wind up to .2 times flaps up stall speed.
– For a C-172 the minimum required is 44 kts x .2 = 8.8 knots
(The 172 exceeds the minimum required)
37. 43Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Discussion:
• What minimums do you set for your
students?
• How do you teach them to evaluate their
performance and adjust personal minimums
to reflect their ability?
41. 47Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Engine Limitations
• RPM
– Engine RPM limits are established to ensure that the engine will
probably make TBO without catastrophic failure (Wear out
before fracture)
– Some flat pitch propellers are capable of exceeding the engine
red line rpm during takeoff or climb. Allowing this to occur
routinely can dramatically reduce the life of the engine or lead to
premature catastrophic engine failure.
– Yellow arc on Tachometer and “avoid continuous operation”
ranges are usually present because of a vibration problem in the
propeller engine combination. Poor TAC calibration can result in
inadvertent operation in these ranges resulting in propeller
failure or crankshaft failure.
42. 48Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Engine Limitations
Temperature
– Temperature limits are established to avoid break
down of oil, excessive heat damage of internal parts
(like pistons) or cracking due to thermal stresses.
– There are often telltales on the engine that will
indicate that an engine has been over temped.
– While low temperature limits are not usually
established, operating at low oil temperatures can
result in poor oil flow through oil coolers, water
contamination in the oil and resulting internal
corrosion.
43. 49Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Some notes on Professionalism
• Walk the talk.
• Don’t let your students see you do anything
you don’t want them to do in a week or so.
• Have your students brief on limitations
before flight – don’t just hop in and go.
• If it’s not important to you it’s not
important to your students.
46. 54Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
A. As long as the 10% margin of safety
is not exceeded.
B. Turbulence is no greater than
moderate
C. Neither A nor B
Question 1
Flying above the red line is permissable:
47. 55Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
A. All control surfaces have been
balanced.
B. Turbulence is no greater than
moderate
C. No turbulence is present
Question 2
Flying within the yellow arc is permissable as
long as:
48. 56Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
A. Compromise stall recovery.
B. Lighten pitch control forces
C. Place greater stress on the nose
wheel.
Question 3
A forward center of gravity will:
50. 58Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Exceeding the max gross weight limit will:
A. Improve takeoff and climb
performance
B. Cause undue stress to the aircraft
C. Cause fatigue problems
Question 5
52. 60Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
A. As long as the 10% margin of safety
is not exceeded.
B. Turbulence is no greater than
moderate
C. Neither A nor B
Question 1
Flying above the red line is OK:
53. 61Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
A. All control surfaces have been
balanced.
B. Turbulence is no greater than
moderate
C. No turbulence is present
Question 2
Flying within the yellow arc is OK as long as:
54. 62Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
A. Compromise stall recovery.
B. Lighten pitch control forces
C. Place greater stress on the nose
wheel.
Question 3
A forward center of gravity will:
56. 64Federal Aviation
Administration
FAASTeam CFI Workshop 6
January 2012
Exceeding the max gross weight limit will:
A. Improve takeoff and climb
performance
B. Cause undue stress to the aircraft
C. Cause fatigue problems
Question 5
Robert Wesner and John Steuernagle AAL, (907) 457-9241 x241, robert.f.wesner@faa.gov Presenter note: This is a highly interactive presentation. An audience comprised of flight instructors should be able to recall a good deal of the information presented and participate actively in discussion. That said – discussion should always come back to how limitations are taught and how to motivate pilots to consider them seriously, not only in training but throughout their flying careers. Presentation Note: You will find that some slides are hidden in the “Slide Show” view. You may wish to use the presentation as is depending on the time available, the content includes all the required Core Topic information. You may also un-hide the hidden slides with a right mouse click to present the entire show when time and audience permits. 2011/11/10-007 (I) PP
It’s the first of June 2010 about 5:05pm in Anchorage, Alaska. The 33 year old Commercial Pilot with single-engine land & sea ratings has 1700 hours total time with 81 hours make & model The flight will depart runway 25 at Merrill Field and terminate one half mile later on Ingra street in downtown Anchorage
The aircraft is a 1976 Cessna 206. The pilot, his wife, their 2 children and a nanny are on board. The maximum allowable takeoff weight is 3600 pounds click The calculated empty weight of the aircraft is 2165 pounds. click Leaving a useful load of 1434 pounds click Although the pilot estimated the weight of fuel, passengers, and cargo at 1400 to 1450 pounds the actual weight was about 650 pounds heavier. click The takeoff cg was calculated to be between 4 & 8 inches aft of the cg limit. click
click Due to selfless and heroic actions of people on scene the pilot & 3 passengers survived with extensive injuries. The pilot’s 4-year old son, held on his mother’s lap without a seat belt of his own, was pinned In the wreckage and perished in the post-crash fire. Although the pilots decisions & actions leading to this accident were particularly egregious, aircraft limitations are regularly ignored by the pilots – sometimes with tragic results. This is why it’s imperative for flight instructors to stress and operate within aircraft limitations throughout the learning process – not just as a one-time presentation in ground school. You can read the factual report on the ntsb website
So where do limitations come from? ( Click) First of all from physics. ( Click) i.e. the sum of forces acting on an aircraft determine the maximum rate of climb ( Click) Physical laws are immutable and the penalties for violations are severe. ( Click) Limitations also stem from regulations (Click) that govern aircraft certification. ( Click) Regulatory limitations are also based on physics but usually include a safety factor ( Click) For example CFR 12.65 specifies the minimum max gross weight climb gradient for land and seaplanes.
In this presentation we’ll discuss: (Click) Weight & balance limitations (Click) Landing and Take off performance (Click) Stall speed (Click) Airspeed limitations (Click) Power plant limitations and – if we have time and you’re interested we can discuss (Click) Float and (Click) Ski limitations
Let’s begin with airspeed limitations.
What does the bottom of the white arc refer to? Collect answers from audience then (Click)
Correct – the flaps down stall speed at gross weight. Do you think we could maintain level flight in this aircraft below 40 knots indicated without stalling? If so - how could we do it? Operate below max gross weight. It looks as if the next arrow is pointing to the top of the green arc. What does that signify? Discuss – then (click)
Yep – that’s the flaps up gross weight stalling speed. Could we fly this aircraft flaps up below that speed? Right – just fly at a lower weight. (click) Now we’re looking at the red line. What does that signify? (click)
That’s right – the red line refers to Vne – never exceed.
Here’s an example of what can happen when you exceed Vne. Click on URL & select video. Largest file size is best picture but slowest download.
Here’s an example of what can happen when you exceed Vne. Click on URL & select video. Largest file size is best picture but slowest download.
So what’s the big deal about operating above VNE? Is the airplane going to come apart because we got a little too fast? Answer: Unlikely but could happen Irreversable airframe stress sounds pretty scary – is that REALLY going to happen if I get preoccupied in a descent? Answer: (Click) Yes – it’s really going to happen. Whenever we exceed any limitation we’re getting that much closer to a component failure. If you bend any metal long enough it will fail. Fatigue is cumulative. The airframe remembers each stress cycle and at some point it will fail. It’s not as if the flying machine gets sick and gets better – it’s always going to suffer from the abuse inflicted on it and that brings us to our third choice Unknown and untested. (Click) It’s true that airframes are flown above Vne in certification testing – that’s part of how the Vne is developed but the manufacturer doesn’t calculate the airframe lifespan with the assumption it will be flown outside of limitations so there’s no way to predict how early a fatigue failure will occur.
How about the top of the white arc – what does that signify? (Click)
Correct – the Maximum Flap Extension Speed. You know what’s coming next – what happens if we operate with flaps extended above this value? Discussion: Now we come to the top of the green arc – what’s that signify? Discussion: White arc flap operating range, green arc normal operating range top of green design cruise speed. then (Click)
Right – the top of the green is Vc – design cruise speed. Now what are your thoughts about the yellow arc? Discussion: Flying in turbulence anywhere in the yellow arc results in stressing the aircraft beyond the manufacturer’s design limitations period.
Here’s a very busy chart of the operating envelope with respect to speed. Let’s break it down to discover what’s really important for pilots. (Click)
The Orange lines represent the operating envelope for an airplane certified in the normal – 3.8 g - category. (Click) The yellow line represents aircraft speed. (Click) This line represents Vd or dive speed – at this speed you’re getting very close to flutter. (Click) And here is Vne. (Click) There is a 10 % safety margin between Vne & Vd but, for reasons we’ll discuss you really don’t want to be operating there. (Click)
Now we add gust lines. Within this speed range the airframe can withstand a 50 foot per second gust. At higher speeds though….. Click a 25 foot per second gust is the limit. By the way – 25 fps gusts are very common in light to moderate turbulence.
a 25 foot per second gust is the limit. By the way – 25 fps gusts are very common in light to moderate turbulence. (Click) The speed at which we transition from 50 fps to 25 fps becomes the bottom of the yellow arc (Click) Now we add the stall lines. At these speeds the aircraft will stall before it’s stressed beyond design limits. (Click) Finally and for extra credit how shall we label this speed? Wait for answers then (Click)
Now we add gust lines. Within this speed range the airframe can withstand a 50 foot per second gust. At higher speeds though….. (Click) a 25 foot per second gust is the limit. By the way – 25 fps gusts are very common in light to moderate turbulence. The speed at which we transition from 50 fps to 25 fps becomes the bottom of the yellow arc (Click) Now we add the stall lines. At these speeds the aircraft will stall before it’s stressed beyond design limits. Finally and for extra credit how shall we label this speed? Wait for answers then (Click) Correct! That’s Va – Maneuvering speed
In theory, an airplane should be able to sustain a sudden deflection of any single flight control as long as the airplane is below V a
1 – True and gusts in excess of 25 fps are common. (Click) 2. – Also true. Operating in the yellow arc with any turbulence is very stressful to the aircraft. (Click) 3. – That’s true damage associated with severe turbulence is common. (Click) 4. – False – Larger engines make it easier to fly too fast for conditions (Click) 5. – That’s true. Vne is determined with respect to structural considerations as well as flutter. (Click) 6. – This is also true. A light coating of frost was enough to cause aileron flutter on a CE – 210 in Virginia. The aileron was torn from the airframe but luckily the pilot was able to land successfully. If it had been tail flutter the outcome would have been much worse. (Click) 7.- Maybe true maybe false. It depends on the health of your pitot/static system & ASI. The question is though – are you willing to bet your life on it? (Click)
Now for extra credit what do you think about this question: Discussion then click Correctamundo and that means we have to be especially carefull in turbulence with light loads.
Now let’s take a look at weight & balance limitations.
We’re going to explore weight limitations next and where the weight is concentrated determines the center of gravity so how would you complete the statement above? (Click) Yep – the further forward the cg is the stronger the nose wheel has to be (Click) B is also affected by forward cg. A forward cg makes it more difficult to flare. Stall recovery, on the other hand, is easier with forward c.g. (Click) The further forward the c.g. the stronger the tail must be – who can tell us why? The center of lift on most of the airplanes we fly is developed aft of the center of gravity. So we have to trim the tail down to hold the nose up. Thus forward c.g.s require stronger tail structure. (Click)
Here’s an illustration that shows the principal. With the CG forward of the CL the tendency is for the aircraft to pitch down. (Click) So we rig the tail with enough down force to keep the nose up.
You’ve all seen weight and balance limits graphed like this red box. (Click) At lower weights you can stay within nose gear stress limits, and you can flare & trim with a forward center of gravity. As weight increases though the CG must move aft to avoid exceeding design and control limits. (Click) This upper weight limit is typically based on climb performance criteria and airframe strength. (Click) The aft limit is predicated on tail wheel strength, pitch control forces approching zero, spin resistance, longitudinal stability – see control forces approaching zero – and the ability to control pitch with full power application as in a go around from a balked landing. (Click) Finally – the forward limit is determined by the empenage strength, the ability to flare, and nose gear design limits.
It’s time for some more True or False questions. These all have to do with the maximum gross weight limit. What do you think about this statement? (Click) Yes – that’s true. (Click) You bet – exceeding max gross weight – even by a little bit will result in fatigue problems. As the fleet ages we’re seeing more of this. (Click) Well duh – of course we’re going to climb slower but the insidious thing is the possibility of structural failure. (Click) Yes this is all true when you exceed weight limits. (Click) See the second statement above. The safety margin is there for a reason and the reason is not so you can overload by 50%. (Click) This is sobering. In many cases the max gross weight limit was set because the airframe came apart in static testing. (Click)
Here are some forward c.g. limit considerations. As airplanes are modified they often acquire additional weight and, in the case of engine mods, the weight is usually on the nose. That may make the airplane go faster and increase gross fuel sales figures at your FBO but it requires additional down force on the tail or more weight added aft of the c.g. to compensate.
Here are some attributes associated with loading close to or aft of the aft c.g. limit: Why would aft c.g. be critical for spin recovery? Discuss Tendency to hold nose up, flat spin potential, difficulty in breaking stall. (Click) Stick forces become very light as the aft c.g. is approached. How about a balked landing? Discuss What happens to pitch when we add power to go around? That’s right & we’re already aft c.g. so it’s harder to prevent a stall (Click) Longitudinal stability is compromised with aft c.g. & a stall can result in a major change in direction (Click) What about nose down trim? That’s right. You may run out of nose down trim and that could be a big problem on a go around. (Click) We’ve already mentioned that an aft c.g. will impose more load on the tail wheel.
Now just a little discussion of takeoff performance Book numbers are often optimistic. That’s why it’s important to document your performance with mission loading. Documenting performance with a pilot & half tanks will give you impressive numbers but you’ll be unable to duplicate those figures at gross weight. Better to look at a worst case scenario and then operate with a lighter load. (Click) There is no safety margin in takeoff numbers. (Click) That’s why AOPA Air Safety Institute recommends that pilots add 50% to published takeoff distances.
This program was developed in Alaska so the following is predicated on getting a moose out of a bush strip. That said, overloading opportunities are not just found in Alaska – they’re everywhere and pilots have to know how to deal with them. (Click) First of all don’t fly above Gross Weight! So how do you know how much moose you have to transport? You could follow Dirty Harry’s advice “you got to ask yourself – do I feel lucky?”. Remember – we’re betting our life – and maybe our family’s lives here so the only way to be sure (Click) is to weigh it.
When you’re operating out of a tight space you have to do a little more calculating. We’re using a Super Cub in this example and the standard max. gross weight is 1750 lbs. You can get an STC to increase That max. to 2000 lbs but the POH is predicated on 1750. Here’s how to do the math. (Click) Let’s say that the pilot, fuel, oil, rifle, survival and 200 pounds of moose added to the empty weight total 2000 pounds. Right away we know we’ll need several trips to get the whole moose out but we’re not overloaded. We just need to know if we can clear the trees at the end of the strip. Divide 2000 by 1750 for a factor of 1.3. Multiply the ground run (200 feet or 500 feet over an obstacle) by 1.3 (Click) and we get 260 & 650 feet respectively. There’s no built in safety factor for these numbers. To be conservative we should add our own safety factor. The AOPA Air Safety Institute recommends a safety factor of 1.5 (Click)
So – here we’ve added the safety factor with and without obstacle. Irrelevant if you’re operating out of a 3,000 foot runway vitally important if you’ve only got a few hundred feet to work with. Try it with an example from your world and we recommend you teach your students to add a safety factor too.
You might think we’re done but runway composition, slope, contamination, density altitude, and wind all affect performance. Here’s some wind facts to consider. (Click) Discuss each comment.
Here’s an example of tail wind effect on takeoff
Now just a few words about crosswinds. The maximum demonstrated cross wind component is what? Discuss with audience then (Click)
The maximum demonstrated cross wind component is the highest cross wind component successfully compensated for during flight testing. Will the airplane handle more? Maybe yes maybe no – but if you exceed the max demonstrated component you’re now the test pilot. Good luck. (Click) So true – and recency of experience is very important. We need to take every opportunity to help our students to understand that practice is vital. You gotta use it or lose it. (Click) Obviously this is true and when that happens …… (Click) No amount of pilot skill will salvage the situation. If we’re landing a go around should have been initiated before this – if on takeoff hopefully we realized how strong the cross wind was and aborted before becoming wind blown and airborne. (Click) Certification standards only require a cross wind capability equal to .2 times Vso. (Click) As you can see the C172 easily beats the minimum.
Discussion: (Click) How do you set and adjust minimums for your students? (Click) How and when do you make your students’ responsible for their personal minimums? Discussion
Here’s one way to get students involved with personal minimums. It’s a publication that prepares Alaskan pilots for Off-airport/unimproved airport operations.. You can download a copy at faasafety.gov. Click on Online Resources, then Resources by Type of Operation, and then Alaskan Resources. (Click)
You’ll find this chart on Page 1. We encourage pilots and flight instructors to measure performance periodically and to document the results. That way the student can see progressive improvement throughout training but, more importantly, they will know what they are capable of before attempting operations at short and or obstructed landing sites. By the way – the guide works well On-Airport 500.
Finally let’s take a look at engine limitations.
(Click) We’ve all heard stories of engines that packed it in before their time but exceeding RPM limits makes it much less likely we’ll reach TBO without incident. (Click) Not to mention increased strain on the prop itself (Click) Excess vibration is not our friend. It accelerates the onset of fatigue problems and may lead to structural failure (Click) Over temping can be just as hard on an engine as over reving. Rapid heating and cooling are not good either. Plan descents to keep the engine warm and make the go around (Click) decision early so you can add power gradually. (Click) This is true of turbines and recips alike (Click) All true. Many Alaskan operators cease recip operations at 20 to 30 below zero. Turboprops operations cease about 10 degrees cooler. Even in milder winter temperatures preheating the engine is a very good practice. (Click)
(Click) We’ve all heard stories of engines that packed it in before their time but exceeding RPM limits makes it much less likely we’ll reach TBO without incident. (Click) Not to mention increased strain on the prop itself (Click) Excess vibration is not our friend. It accelerates the onset of fatigue problems and may lead to structural failure (Click) Over temping can be just as hard on an engine as over reving. Rapid heating and cooling are not good either. Plan descents to keep the engine warm and make the go around (Click) decision early so you can add power gradually. (Click) This is true of turbines and recips alike (Click) All true. Many Alaskan operators cease recip operations at 20 to 30 below zero. Turboprops operations cease about 10 degrees cooler. Even in milder winter temperatures preheating the engine is a very good practice. (Click)
Finally a few notes on Professionalism: (Click) As instructors we’ve gotta walk the talk. It’s no good to tell your student it’s important to calculate weight & balance if we don’t even discuss it before flight. and speaking of walking the talk…………… (Click) Of course you can do things with an airplane that your students aren’t ready for or may never be ready for. That’s fine – just don’t let them see you do it because if they do - they’ll be trying to emulate your performance before you know it. (Click) We know that 6,500 foot runway is at least a mile more than we need so how about having your student brief you on takeoff distance required and abort criteria before takeoff. If you make it a part of their routine now it will stick with them after the checkride. (Click) Finally treat all limitations as vital safety of flight items. If they’re not important to you there’s no way they’ll be important to your students. Presenter: The next two slides discuss float and ski flying. Include or bypass at your option.
Optional: Point 4 is a good argument for egress training. Float plane mishaps often end with the airplane upside down. Very disorienting unless you’ve had some training and practice.
Optional: Make point that all these points have to do with performance. They don’t address surviving in cold & possibly wet conditions when you land somewhere on skis but can’t use the airplane again to get home. Especially in winter we may exit the airplane with only what we’re wearing and what’s in our pockets. Good argument for cold weather survival training. You can’t treat a ski-equipped airplane like the wheeled counterpart. Be especially conservative with respect to speed. There are numerous instances of crashes due to ski dump on descent. When the forward ski cable fails the ski can rotate 90 degrees introducing considerable drag in the process. In extreme cases skis have damaged the lift strut with consequent wing failure. For best results – fly slow and inspect the ski system before takeoff and after landing.
15 minute Q&A, then on to a Quiz.
Read & discuss questions. Answers are provided the second time through the questions.