Carbonates are produced in shallow, sunlit seas through direct or biologically mediated precipitation of calcium carbonate. Carbonate platforms accumulate vast amounts of sediment and come in various forms like ramps, shelves, banks, and epeiric platforms. Carbonate production and platform morphology are influenced by factors such as climate, oceanography, tectonics, and sea level change. Carbonate platforms exhibit various facies and vertical successions that reflect the interplay between energy levels, morphology, and sea level fluctuations. Common buildups within platforms include reefs, mounds, bioherms, and biostromes formed by organisms trapping and binding sediment.
Sequence stratigraphy involves subdividing stratigraphic records based on bounding discontinuities. A depositional sequence is defined as a succession of genetically related strata bounded by unconformities and correlative conformities. During a sequence, systems tracts are deposited in response to changes in relative sea level, including highstand, falling stage, lowstand, and transgressive tracts bounded by surfaces like sequence boundaries, transgressive surfaces, and flooding surfaces.
A sedimentary facies is a body of rock or sediment that is characterized by particular attributes that distinguish it from adjacent rock bodies. These attributes include lithology, color, texture, sedimentary structures, mineral/fossil content, and bed geometry. Together these attributes provide clues about the depositional environment. Different facies reflect different environments, such as beach/shallow marine facies indicating sandstone and offshore marine facies indicating shale. Facies analysis studies these attributes to interpret depositional environments and geological history at various scales.
The document provides information on igneous petrology including definitions of key terms like petrography, petrology, and petrogenesis. It describes techniques for classifying igneous rocks based on their texture, mineralogy, chemistry and other properties. Bowen's reaction series is explained as the process by which magma cools and crystallizes into rocks of different compositions. Diagrams like Harker variation diagrams and triangular variation diagrams are used to visualize chemical variations in rock compositions.
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
This document provides an outline for a course on sequence stratigraphy. It covers key concepts in stratigraphy including sedimentary depositional environments, facies analysis, sequence stratigraphy principles, and causes of sea level change. Common siliciclastic and carbonate stratigraphic successions are examined. The role of base level and relative sea level changes in controlling sediment accumulation and sequence boundaries is discussed.
This document discusses metamorphic differentiation, which refers to the redistribution of mineral grains or chemical components within a rock during metamorphism. There are two main types - segregation, which produces mineral-rich layers, and compositional layering parallel to metamorphic foliation. Gradients in chemical potential that drive differentiation are created by factors like temperature differences, pressure differences, mineral composition, mineral size, and the surrounding media. Mechanisms of differentiation include preserving original layering, transposing original bedding, solution and reprecipitation of minerals, preferential nucleation of minerals in fluids, and migmatization involving partial melting.
This document provides an introduction to sequence stratigraphy, which attempts to subdivide and explain sedimentary deposits in terms of variations in sediment supply and accommodation space associated with sea level changes. It defines key terms like parasequence, progradation, retrogradation, transgression, and regression. It also describes the accommodation space equation and causes of changes in sea level and tectonic subsidence. Finally, it discusses sequence stratigraphic concepts like depositional sequences, system tracts, stacking patterns, and sequence boundaries.
Sequence stratigraphy involves subdividing stratigraphic records based on bounding discontinuities. A depositional sequence is defined as a succession of genetically related strata bounded by unconformities and correlative conformities. During a sequence, systems tracts are deposited in response to changes in relative sea level, including highstand, falling stage, lowstand, and transgressive tracts bounded by surfaces like sequence boundaries, transgressive surfaces, and flooding surfaces.
A sedimentary facies is a body of rock or sediment that is characterized by particular attributes that distinguish it from adjacent rock bodies. These attributes include lithology, color, texture, sedimentary structures, mineral/fossil content, and bed geometry. Together these attributes provide clues about the depositional environment. Different facies reflect different environments, such as beach/shallow marine facies indicating sandstone and offshore marine facies indicating shale. Facies analysis studies these attributes to interpret depositional environments and geological history at various scales.
The document provides information on igneous petrology including definitions of key terms like petrography, petrology, and petrogenesis. It describes techniques for classifying igneous rocks based on their texture, mineralogy, chemistry and other properties. Bowen's reaction series is explained as the process by which magma cools and crystallizes into rocks of different compositions. Diagrams like Harker variation diagrams and triangular variation diagrams are used to visualize chemical variations in rock compositions.
Paired metamorphic belts occur where zones of high-pressure low-temperature metamorphism are parallel to zones of low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism. They were first recognized in Japan and form due to subduction of oceanic crust beneath continental crust. Paired metamorphic belts support the theory of plate tectonics, as the contrasting pressure-temperature conditions in the two parallel belts can be explained by ocean-continent convergence. Examples of paired metamorphic belts are found throughout the basement rocks of the former Gondwanaland supercontinent.
This document provides an outline for a course on sequence stratigraphy. It covers key concepts in stratigraphy including sedimentary depositional environments, facies analysis, sequence stratigraphy principles, and causes of sea level change. Common siliciclastic and carbonate stratigraphic successions are examined. The role of base level and relative sea level changes in controlling sediment accumulation and sequence boundaries is discussed.
This document discusses metamorphic differentiation, which refers to the redistribution of mineral grains or chemical components within a rock during metamorphism. There are two main types - segregation, which produces mineral-rich layers, and compositional layering parallel to metamorphic foliation. Gradients in chemical potential that drive differentiation are created by factors like temperature differences, pressure differences, mineral composition, mineral size, and the surrounding media. Mechanisms of differentiation include preserving original layering, transposing original bedding, solution and reprecipitation of minerals, preferential nucleation of minerals in fluids, and migmatization involving partial melting.
This document provides an introduction to sequence stratigraphy, which attempts to subdivide and explain sedimentary deposits in terms of variations in sediment supply and accommodation space associated with sea level changes. It defines key terms like parasequence, progradation, retrogradation, transgression, and regression. It also describes the accommodation space equation and causes of changes in sea level and tectonic subsidence. Finally, it discusses sequence stratigraphic concepts like depositional sequences, system tracts, stacking patterns, and sequence boundaries.
Sedimentary structure and paleocurrent analysisDarshan Darji
This document provides an overview of sedimentary structure and paleocurrent analysis. It begins with an introduction and outlines the main contents which are physical structures, chemical structures, biogenic structures, and paleocurrent analysis. For physical structures, it describes various types of bedding geometry and internal structures like cross-bedding, ripple bedding, and graded bedding. It also covers bedding plane markings including sole marks and surface marks. The document then discusses chemical and biogenic sedimentary structures. It concludes with an explanation of how paleocurrent analysis is performed by measuring structures like cross-stratification and sole marks to determine current direction.
This document summarizes key concepts about sedimentary basins. It defines sedimentary basins as areas of the Earth's crust where sediments accumulate due to tectonic subsidence. Tectonics plays a crucial role in forming sedimentary basins and controlling sedimentation rates and environments. Data on sedimentary basins comes from surface mapping, core sampling, and seismic profiling, which can be used to reconstruct the evolution of basins through cross sections, isopach maps, and backstripping techniques. Paleocurrent measurements provide important clues about sediment dispersal patterns within basins.
The document discusses facies analysis, which involves dividing sedimentary rock bodies into facies units based on their distinctive lithological or biological features. Facies can be defined descriptively based on attributes like rock type, fossils, or sedimentary structures, or interpretively to represent depositional environments. Facies units may represent different scales from thin sections to thick successions. Facies associations represent commonly associated attributes and form the basis for facies models, which explain observed associations. Interpreting facies involves considering factors like the meaning and scales of facies units as well as relationships between facies and depositional environments or processes.
The document summarizes several classification schemes for sandstone, focusing on the ternary QFL scheme that divides sandstones based on their quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragment composition as determined through point counting of thin sections. The document also describes various sandstone compositions including quartz arenite, feldspathic arenite/wacke, lithic wacke, and others; and discusses framework grains, matrix, cement, porosity, and the influence of provenance on sandstone composition.
This document discusses sedimentary structures, which are macroscopic features formed during sediment deposition. It classifies sedimentary structures based on their morphology and formation processes. The key types discussed are physical structures like bedding, cross-bedding, and ripple marks formed directly by sedimentation. Chemical structures like nodules and concretions are formed by precipitation. Biogenic structures such as stromatolites and trace fossils provide evidence of ancient life. Studying sedimentary structures can provide insight into depositional environments, paleocurrents, and stratigraphic relationships.
The document discusses sedimentary facies and their relationship to sea level changes. It defines sedimentary facies as aspects of rock units defined by their composition, texture, and fossil content that indicate the environment of deposition. There are two main types of facies - lithofacies defined by composition and texture, and biofacies defined by fossil content. Sedimentary facies change laterally and vertically according to sea level changes - during transgression facies shift onshore and during regression facies shift offshore. Vertical sequences of facies represent once laterally continuous environments (Walther's Law). Major causes of sea level change include continental glaciation, plate tectonics, and local geological changes.
The document summarizes clastic marine shelf systems. Clastic shelves are typically pericontinental or epicontinental settings. Sediment transport on shelves is complex, influenced by waves, tides, currents, and density contrasts. Deposits become finer-grained away from the shoreline due to decreasing energy. Storm beds are interspersed with quiet water deposits and indicate transitions from shoreface to offshore facies.
The document discusses the lowstand systems tract (LST), defining it as deposits that accumulate after the onset of relative sea-level rise during a period of early rise and normal regression. The LST includes fluvial, coastal, shallow marine, and deep marine deposits characterized by progradation or retrogradation. Key points covered include the depositional processes and products of each environment within the LST, as well as the economic potential of LST deposits for reservoirs and placer deposits.
Facies analysis involves identifying rock units based on their appearance and characteristics, and interpreting the depositional environments and processes responsible for their formation. The document discusses the history and definition of facies, different types of facies including lithofacies, biofacies, and seismic facies. It also discusses facies sequences, facies associations, facies tools like outcrops and well logs used in analysis, facies models, and provides examples of analyzing deltaic facies and reconstructing river-dominated, wave-dominated, and tide-dominated delta environments. Facies analysis is essential for sedimentologists as it allows for standardized observations and interpretation of paleoenvironments, as well as applications in fields like hydrocarbon exploration
This document defines sequence stratigraphy and discusses its basic concepts. Sequence stratigraphy studies genetically related rock units bounded by unconformities. It is based on dividing strata into sequences bounded by sea level changes. Key concepts discussed include depositional sequences, parasequences, flooding surfaces, system tracts, accommodation space, and the importance of sequence stratigraphy for understanding basin evolution and resource exploration.
The document discusses various depositional environments and their diagnostic criteria. It describes fluvial, aeolian, lacustrine, and glacial environments. Fluvial environments include features like meandering rivers, levees, and crevasse splays. Aeolian environments are characterized by dune types and loess deposits. Lacustrine deposits show rhythmic bedding and contain fossils. Glacial environments involve ice transport and deposition of unsorted sediments. Diagnostic criteria allow identifying depositional environments based on structures, fossils, and sediment characteristics.
This document discusses seismic stratigraphy, which uses seismic data to extract stratigraphic information about subsurface rock layers. It defines seismic waves and methods, including refraction and reflection. Reflection seismic is more commonly used to identify structures like folds and faults beneath the surface. Key parameters for interpretation are reflection configuration, continuity, amplitude, frequency, and interval velocity. Depositional environments are also identified based on their relationship to the wave base.
Sedimentology Lecture 4. concept of sedimentary facies, association and proce...Sigve Hamilton Aspelund
The document discusses sedimentary facies analysis and the concepts of facies, facies associations, and sedimentary processes. It defines a facies as the physical features of a sedimentary deposit that can be used to distinguish it from adjacent deposits. Facies associations are genetically related groups of facies that record particular depositional environments. Sedimentary processes include selective processes that transport and structure sediments, as well as mass processes involving large sediment movements like debris flows, grain flows, mud flows, and turbidity flows.
Basin margins and its formation mechanism.Usama Shah
This great work done by M. Wajid Manzoor, student of PU Lahore, will help you to understand basics of Basin Margins, its formation mechanism, and most important thing that is Sedimentary Basins of Pakistan.
Mechanical concentration forms placer deposits by separating heavy minerals from light ones using gravity and moving fluids like water or air. Placer deposits can form in various environments including along hill slopes (eluvial placers), in streams (alluvial placers), on beaches, and from wind (eolian placers). Key factors that influence concentration include differences in mineral density, size, shape, and the velocity of the moving fluid. Common minerals found in placer deposits include gold, platinum, tin, magnetite, and chromite due to their high density and resistance to weathering.
The fundamental part of the trap which is low-permeable to impermeable rock with a capillary entry pressure large enough to prevent the petroleum from migrating further is termed as Seal.
Strain markers are objects in deformed rocks that can be used to measure strain. Good strain markers include reduction spots, pebbles, fossils, fold sets, and lineations. Spherical markers originally circular in cross-section become elliptical due to homogeneous deformation, with the ratio of major to minor axes indicating strain. Fossils with lines of symmetry like trilobites and brachiopods can indicate the principal strain directions. Fold sets allow comparing initial and final layered sequences to analyze strain. Schistosity and lineations in metamorphic rocks can also act as strain markers.
This document discusses isotope geochemistry, specifically focusing on isotopic fractionation. It defines key terms like isotopes, fractionation, and fractionation factors. It explains how physical and chemical processes can cause fractionation of stable isotopes. Specifically, it discusses equilibrium and kinetic fractionation, temperature effects on fractionation, and using isotopes to study physical and chemical processes. Measurement techniques for isotopes are also summarized.
Migmatites are mixed rocks formed near large granite intrusions when magma is injected into neighboring metamorphic rock. They contain a paleosome of unaltered parent rock and a neosome of newly formed rock that may be leucocratic or melanocratic. Migmatites exhibit a variety of structures depending on the degree of melting, including dietzonic, schollen, phlebitic, stromatic, and folded structures. They are associated with high-temperature metamorphic facies and often found in close association with other high-grade metamorphic rocks. Common uses include cement manufacture, road aggregate, and building stone.
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks and the process of diagenesis. It discusses how sediments are deposited and buried over time, undergoing physical and chemical changes through compaction, cementation, and other diagenetic processes. These changes occur due to increasing pressure and temperature with depth and alter the sediments' properties, converting them into consolidated sedimentary rocks. The document also examines factors that control diagenesis like composition, porosity, and permeability, and it outlines the major diagenetic processes and their effects on the physical, mineralogical, and chemical characteristics of sediments.
The document describes various chemical tests to identify different ions. It lists the reagents used to test for bromide, chloride, ferricyanide, ferrocyanide, iodide, thiocyanate, nitrite, sulfide, carbonate, sulfite, and borate ions. The tests involve adding specific reagents to samples containing the ions and observing the color changes or precipitates that are formed.
The document summarizes the key components and processes of the human digestive system. It describes how the digestive system breaks down the three main macromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) through both physical and chemical digestion using mechanical and enzymatic actions. Various organs and glands secrete enzymes and acids that break down nutrients into smaller components as food moves through the alimentary canal, culminating in the absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste.
Sedimentary structure and paleocurrent analysisDarshan Darji
This document provides an overview of sedimentary structure and paleocurrent analysis. It begins with an introduction and outlines the main contents which are physical structures, chemical structures, biogenic structures, and paleocurrent analysis. For physical structures, it describes various types of bedding geometry and internal structures like cross-bedding, ripple bedding, and graded bedding. It also covers bedding plane markings including sole marks and surface marks. The document then discusses chemical and biogenic sedimentary structures. It concludes with an explanation of how paleocurrent analysis is performed by measuring structures like cross-stratification and sole marks to determine current direction.
This document summarizes key concepts about sedimentary basins. It defines sedimentary basins as areas of the Earth's crust where sediments accumulate due to tectonic subsidence. Tectonics plays a crucial role in forming sedimentary basins and controlling sedimentation rates and environments. Data on sedimentary basins comes from surface mapping, core sampling, and seismic profiling, which can be used to reconstruct the evolution of basins through cross sections, isopach maps, and backstripping techniques. Paleocurrent measurements provide important clues about sediment dispersal patterns within basins.
The document discusses facies analysis, which involves dividing sedimentary rock bodies into facies units based on their distinctive lithological or biological features. Facies can be defined descriptively based on attributes like rock type, fossils, or sedimentary structures, or interpretively to represent depositional environments. Facies units may represent different scales from thin sections to thick successions. Facies associations represent commonly associated attributes and form the basis for facies models, which explain observed associations. Interpreting facies involves considering factors like the meaning and scales of facies units as well as relationships between facies and depositional environments or processes.
The document summarizes several classification schemes for sandstone, focusing on the ternary QFL scheme that divides sandstones based on their quartz, feldspar, and lithic fragment composition as determined through point counting of thin sections. The document also describes various sandstone compositions including quartz arenite, feldspathic arenite/wacke, lithic wacke, and others; and discusses framework grains, matrix, cement, porosity, and the influence of provenance on sandstone composition.
This document discusses sedimentary structures, which are macroscopic features formed during sediment deposition. It classifies sedimentary structures based on their morphology and formation processes. The key types discussed are physical structures like bedding, cross-bedding, and ripple marks formed directly by sedimentation. Chemical structures like nodules and concretions are formed by precipitation. Biogenic structures such as stromatolites and trace fossils provide evidence of ancient life. Studying sedimentary structures can provide insight into depositional environments, paleocurrents, and stratigraphic relationships.
The document discusses sedimentary facies and their relationship to sea level changes. It defines sedimentary facies as aspects of rock units defined by their composition, texture, and fossil content that indicate the environment of deposition. There are two main types of facies - lithofacies defined by composition and texture, and biofacies defined by fossil content. Sedimentary facies change laterally and vertically according to sea level changes - during transgression facies shift onshore and during regression facies shift offshore. Vertical sequences of facies represent once laterally continuous environments (Walther's Law). Major causes of sea level change include continental glaciation, plate tectonics, and local geological changes.
The document summarizes clastic marine shelf systems. Clastic shelves are typically pericontinental or epicontinental settings. Sediment transport on shelves is complex, influenced by waves, tides, currents, and density contrasts. Deposits become finer-grained away from the shoreline due to decreasing energy. Storm beds are interspersed with quiet water deposits and indicate transitions from shoreface to offshore facies.
The document discusses the lowstand systems tract (LST), defining it as deposits that accumulate after the onset of relative sea-level rise during a period of early rise and normal regression. The LST includes fluvial, coastal, shallow marine, and deep marine deposits characterized by progradation or retrogradation. Key points covered include the depositional processes and products of each environment within the LST, as well as the economic potential of LST deposits for reservoirs and placer deposits.
Facies analysis involves identifying rock units based on their appearance and characteristics, and interpreting the depositional environments and processes responsible for their formation. The document discusses the history and definition of facies, different types of facies including lithofacies, biofacies, and seismic facies. It also discusses facies sequences, facies associations, facies tools like outcrops and well logs used in analysis, facies models, and provides examples of analyzing deltaic facies and reconstructing river-dominated, wave-dominated, and tide-dominated delta environments. Facies analysis is essential for sedimentologists as it allows for standardized observations and interpretation of paleoenvironments, as well as applications in fields like hydrocarbon exploration
This document defines sequence stratigraphy and discusses its basic concepts. Sequence stratigraphy studies genetically related rock units bounded by unconformities. It is based on dividing strata into sequences bounded by sea level changes. Key concepts discussed include depositional sequences, parasequences, flooding surfaces, system tracts, accommodation space, and the importance of sequence stratigraphy for understanding basin evolution and resource exploration.
The document discusses various depositional environments and their diagnostic criteria. It describes fluvial, aeolian, lacustrine, and glacial environments. Fluvial environments include features like meandering rivers, levees, and crevasse splays. Aeolian environments are characterized by dune types and loess deposits. Lacustrine deposits show rhythmic bedding and contain fossils. Glacial environments involve ice transport and deposition of unsorted sediments. Diagnostic criteria allow identifying depositional environments based on structures, fossils, and sediment characteristics.
This document discusses seismic stratigraphy, which uses seismic data to extract stratigraphic information about subsurface rock layers. It defines seismic waves and methods, including refraction and reflection. Reflection seismic is more commonly used to identify structures like folds and faults beneath the surface. Key parameters for interpretation are reflection configuration, continuity, amplitude, frequency, and interval velocity. Depositional environments are also identified based on their relationship to the wave base.
Sedimentology Lecture 4. concept of sedimentary facies, association and proce...Sigve Hamilton Aspelund
The document discusses sedimentary facies analysis and the concepts of facies, facies associations, and sedimentary processes. It defines a facies as the physical features of a sedimentary deposit that can be used to distinguish it from adjacent deposits. Facies associations are genetically related groups of facies that record particular depositional environments. Sedimentary processes include selective processes that transport and structure sediments, as well as mass processes involving large sediment movements like debris flows, grain flows, mud flows, and turbidity flows.
Basin margins and its formation mechanism.Usama Shah
This great work done by M. Wajid Manzoor, student of PU Lahore, will help you to understand basics of Basin Margins, its formation mechanism, and most important thing that is Sedimentary Basins of Pakistan.
Mechanical concentration forms placer deposits by separating heavy minerals from light ones using gravity and moving fluids like water or air. Placer deposits can form in various environments including along hill slopes (eluvial placers), in streams (alluvial placers), on beaches, and from wind (eolian placers). Key factors that influence concentration include differences in mineral density, size, shape, and the velocity of the moving fluid. Common minerals found in placer deposits include gold, platinum, tin, magnetite, and chromite due to their high density and resistance to weathering.
The fundamental part of the trap which is low-permeable to impermeable rock with a capillary entry pressure large enough to prevent the petroleum from migrating further is termed as Seal.
Strain markers are objects in deformed rocks that can be used to measure strain. Good strain markers include reduction spots, pebbles, fossils, fold sets, and lineations. Spherical markers originally circular in cross-section become elliptical due to homogeneous deformation, with the ratio of major to minor axes indicating strain. Fossils with lines of symmetry like trilobites and brachiopods can indicate the principal strain directions. Fold sets allow comparing initial and final layered sequences to analyze strain. Schistosity and lineations in metamorphic rocks can also act as strain markers.
This document discusses isotope geochemistry, specifically focusing on isotopic fractionation. It defines key terms like isotopes, fractionation, and fractionation factors. It explains how physical and chemical processes can cause fractionation of stable isotopes. Specifically, it discusses equilibrium and kinetic fractionation, temperature effects on fractionation, and using isotopes to study physical and chemical processes. Measurement techniques for isotopes are also summarized.
Migmatites are mixed rocks formed near large granite intrusions when magma is injected into neighboring metamorphic rock. They contain a paleosome of unaltered parent rock and a neosome of newly formed rock that may be leucocratic or melanocratic. Migmatites exhibit a variety of structures depending on the degree of melting, including dietzonic, schollen, phlebitic, stromatic, and folded structures. They are associated with high-temperature metamorphic facies and often found in close association with other high-grade metamorphic rocks. Common uses include cement manufacture, road aggregate, and building stone.
This document provides an overview of sedimentary rocks and the process of diagenesis. It discusses how sediments are deposited and buried over time, undergoing physical and chemical changes through compaction, cementation, and other diagenetic processes. These changes occur due to increasing pressure and temperature with depth and alter the sediments' properties, converting them into consolidated sedimentary rocks. The document also examines factors that control diagenesis like composition, porosity, and permeability, and it outlines the major diagenetic processes and their effects on the physical, mineralogical, and chemical characteristics of sediments.
The document describes various chemical tests to identify different ions. It lists the reagents used to test for bromide, chloride, ferricyanide, ferrocyanide, iodide, thiocyanate, nitrite, sulfide, carbonate, sulfite, and borate ions. The tests involve adding specific reagents to samples containing the ions and observing the color changes or precipitates that are formed.
The document summarizes the key components and processes of the human digestive system. It describes how the digestive system breaks down the three main macromolecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids) through both physical and chemical digestion using mechanical and enzymatic actions. Various organs and glands secrete enzymes and acids that break down nutrients into smaller components as food moves through the alimentary canal, culminating in the absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste.
Acids are substances that are sour, such as lemon juice and vinegar, and are known as acidic. Bases are the opposite of acids and can also be corrosive, while alkalis are bases that are soluble in water. The litmus test and pH scale are used to determine whether a substance is an acid or base and the strength of acids and bases.
Acids release H+ ions in water and have sour tastes, while bases release OH- ions in water and feel slippery. Strong acids and bases completely ionize in water, while weak acids and bases only partially ionize. Common strong acids include sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid, while strong bases include lithium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide. When acids and bases are mixed, they neutralize each other through a reaction that produces water and a salt. Indicators change color depending on whether the solution is acidic or basic, and can be used to measure the pH of a solution.
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions in water and has a pH less than 7. Strong acids, like hydrochloric acid, are completely ionized in water, while weak acids like acetic acid only partially ionize. Acids react with metals to produce salts and hydrogen gas, with carbonates to produce salts, water and carbon dioxide gas, and with bases to produce salts and water. They have sour tastes and are corrosive.
The nervous system is comprised of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves connecting to organs and tissues). The central nervous system receives sensory information and coordinates motor responses through neurons that communicate via electrical and chemical signals. There are three types of neurons - sensory, motor and interneurons. The peripheral nervous system has two divisions - somatic (voluntary control) and autonomic (involuntary control like digestion).
The document provides information about organic chemistry compounds including their structures, functional groups, and naming conventions. It discusses the basic components of organic molecules like carbon and hydrogen and how carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds. It also summarizes different types of organic compounds such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and compounds containing common functional groups. Examples are given to illustrate concepts like structural isomers, chiral carbons, and cis/trans isomers.
The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. It has two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and controls sensory input, integration of information, and motor output. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body through nerves and allows for voluntary control of muscles and glands as well as involuntary reflexes. The nervous system monitors both internal and external changes through sensory receptors and responds through integration and motor functions to control the body.
The document summarizes the key aspects of the digestive system. It describes how the digestive system prepares food for use by all body cells through digestion. It then outlines the main parts and functions of the digestive tract, from the mouth through the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. The document also discusses the roles of accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas in producing digestive enzymes and chemicals.
Acids and bases can be identified by their names or chemical formulas. Acids contain hydrogen (H) or a carboxyl group (COOH) and have a pH below 7. Bases contain a metallic or ammonium ion and hydroxide (OH) and have a pH above 7. Acid-base indicators change color at specific pH levels and can be used to determine if a solution is acidic or basic. A neutralization reaction occurs between an acid and base, producing water and a salt.
This document provides an overview of key chemistry concepts including the states of matter, atoms, bonding, and molecular structures.
It begins by explaining the particle nature of matter and defining solids, liquids, and gases. Atoms are introduced as the smallest particles that make up elements, which can combine to form compounds. Bonding types - ionic, covalent, and metallic - are then described along with their characteristic properties. Molecular structures like diamond, graphite, and silica are used as examples of giant covalent networks.
The document concludes by recapping the main differences between ionic, covalent and metallic bonding in terms of structure and properties. Key areas of chemistry are covered concisely with definitions and
This document provides an overview of carbonate sedimentology and techniques for interpreting carbonate reservoirs using well logs, image logs, and core data. It discusses how carbonates differ from clastic reservoirs in terms of biogenic processes and diagenesis. Key carbonate depositional environments, textures, structures, and facies are described. Examples of carbonate features observed on well logs and images are presented alongside core calibration data. Interpretation of fractures in carbonate reservoirs is also addressed.
This document provides an overview of carbonate sedimentology and techniques for interpreting carbonate reservoirs using well logs, image logs, and core data. It discusses how carbonates differ from clastic reservoirs in terms of biogenic processes and diagenesis. Key carbonate depositional environments, textures, structures, and facies are described. Examples of carbonate features identified on well logs and images are presented alongside core photos for calibration. Interpretation of fractures is also addressed.
This document discusses the classification and distribution of different types of marine sediments. Sediments are classified based on their origin as lithogenous (derived from land), biogenous (derived from organisms), hydrogenous (derived from water), or cosmogenous (derived from outer space). Lithogenous sediments include eroded rock fragments transported from land by rivers, wind, ice or gravity. Biogenous sediments consist of the hard remains of once-living organisms like shells. Hydrogenous sediments form as minerals precipitate directly from seawater, like manganese nodules. The distribution of sediments depends on factors like proximity to land, water depth, biological productivity and dissolution rates.
Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposits, also known as VMS ore deposits, are a type of metal sulfide ore deposit, mainly copper-zinc which are associated with and created by volcanic-associated hydrothermal events in submarine environments
This document provides information on carbonate systems, including their formation processes, modern and ancient settings, controlling factors, and sedimentary facies. Carbonate sediment is formed through biological processes controlled by factors like temperature, salinity, and clastic sediment influx. Modern carbonates are found in warm-water, cool-water, and pelagic settings. Ancient carbonates developed on flooded continental shelves during high sea levels. Carbonate platforms, ramps, reefs, and other depositional environments are described.
Chert is a form of quartz that occurs in sedimentary rocks, usually in discontinuous beds or nodules. It can form biologically from siliciclastic rocks or diagenetically from carbonates. Coal forms from plant debris in association with some siliciclastic rocks. It can have banded or non-banded textures reflecting its organic compound content. Coal rank depends on the degree of metamorphism, with increasing rank containing more energy per volume. Evaporites form through chemical precipitation in restricted basins where evaporation exceeds precipitation, leaving behind minerals like gypsum, halite, and sulfates.
This document discusses sedimentary rocks, including their formation, classification, and characteristic textures and structures. Sedimentary rocks form through the lithification of sediments deposited under water. They are classified based on their composition into clastic rocks (formed from fragments of pre-existing rocks), chemical/evaporite rocks (formed by chemical precipitation), and organic rocks (containing organic matter). Key textures include grain size, shape, packing, and fabric. Common structures include stratification, lamination, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and ripple marks, which provide information about depositional environments.
The mantle, CO2 and the giant Aptian chemogenic lacustrine carbonate factory ...GiovannaDellaPorta2
The document summarizes research on the Aptian lacustrine carbonate system in the South Atlantic formed during the opening of the South Atlantic. Some key points:
- It was a vast carbonate factory covering over 1/3 million km2, making it the largest chemogenic carbonate system in Earth's history.
- The carbonate source was likely mantle CO2 leaching mafic rocks, forming hyperalkaline lakes where chemogenic carbonates and Mg-silicates deposited up to 500m thick.
- Microbial structures are rare due to extreme alkalinity. Carbonates took forms of calcite shrub framestones and spherulite floatstones associated with Mg-silicate
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1. Carbonates & Carbonate
Carbonates Platforms
Carbonate production
Carbonate Platforms
Carbonate Buildups
Sequences
Carbonate Production Carbonate Production
“Carbonate Factory”: Climate
Shallow, illuminated seafloor Evaporation, precipitation
Particles of all sizes: skeletons, mud Clastic sediment supply
(direct or biologically mediated Fauna: cool water: Foramol assemblage
precipitation) warm water: Chlorozoan assemblage
Much sediment accumulates “in place”, Oceanography
but some transported landward (peritidal Light penetration
flats/shoreline) or basinward (slope and
Water temperature, circulation
basin margin)
Oxygenation
Removed from siliciclastic sedimentation
Salinity
Carbonate Production Carbonate Platforms
Tectonics Ramp, Shelf, Bank, Epeiric
Rate and style of subsidence Rimmed or unrimmed
Terrigenous sediment supply Sediment texture a function of energy
level and carbonate production
Many different facies models (energy
level, temperature, platform
morphology, platform energy,
siliciclastic input, etc.)
2. Terms: Terms:
Ramp Basin Bank Basin Shelf Ramp Basin Bank Basin Shelf
Platform Platform
Platform: Platform:
• a large edifice formed by the accumulation of sediment • Shelf: Platform linked to an adjacent landmass, and
in an area of subsidence “distally steepened”
• Generally flat topped, with steep sides, many 100s of • Ramp: Shelf that dips gently (<1 deg. basinward)
km2 in extent without a break in slope
• Bank: Isolated platform cut off from terrigenous clastics
• Epeiric platform: flooded cratonic areas
Carbonate Platforms Vertical Successions
Rimmed platforms Unrimmed platforms
Barrier reefs/shoals – high energy zones Wave energy dissipated over entire
Grainstones, bafflestones, framestones
platform
Back-barrier areas – variable energy
Gradational facies boundaries
Skeletal/ooid grainstone shoals
Packstones, wackestones Outer shelf – low energy (mudstones)
Evaporites? (restricted circulation) “Inner shelf” (shoreface) – high energy
Patch reefs (framestones, boundstones) (grainstones)
Shoreline – low energy
Boundstones, rudstones, evaporites
3. Shoaling-upward succession:
High-energy carbonate shelf
Vertical Successions
Vertical succession depends on:
Platform/shelf morphology
Energy level (waves)
Rimmed versus unrimmed Regression
Climate (temperature, precipitation)
Sea-level change (sequence stratigraphy)
Shoaling-upward successions
common
Transgression
Like siliciclastic shelf/shoreline systems
Shoaling-upward succession:
Low-energy carbonate shelf
Regression
Transgression
4. Paradox Group
Pennsylvanian “glacioeustatic” sea level changes
?~100 m over ~105 years
Paradox Basin
• “Ancestral
Rocky Mtns”
to NE
• Deposition
close to
Equator
• (Semi)
restricted
basin
Carbonate Buildups
Reef (Boggs):
“Any biologically influenced buildup of
carbonate sediment which affected
deposition in adjacent areas (and thus
differed to some degree from surrounding
sediments), and stood topographically
higher than surrounding sediments during
deposition” (Longman, 1981)
Ordovician Platform Carbonates – Montreal Area
Buildups Through the Ages Carbonate Buildups
Mounds: “Biogenic mounds”
Modern reefs:
• Microbial*
Barrier reefs – platform margins • Stromatolites/thrombolites, calcimicrobes,
Fringe reefs – adjacent to shoreline mud
Atolls – around tops of seamounts • Skeletal*
Patch reefs, pinnacle reefs, table reefs – • Organisms control trapping
shelf margins or middle shelf • Small “reef builders”, calcareous algae,
bryozoa, spiculate sponges, brachiopods,
rudist bivalves
• Mud
• Inorganic accumulation with some fossils
5. Carbonate Buildups
Bioherm:
Lens-shaped reef or mound
Biostrome:
Tabular body
Carbonate buildup
No compositional, size or shape
connotation
“Stratigraphic
Facies/Processes
reef”: stacked
mounds, never Core facies
had much relief Massive, unbedded carbonate, with or
without skeletons
Flank/forereef facies
“Ecologic reef”: Bedded carbonate sand and conglomerate
Was a of in situ or derived material
topographic Dips and thins away from core
feature
Interreef/open platform facies
Subtidal deposits (carbonate/clastic)
unrelated to reef growth
6. Narrow rimmed shelf - Bahamas Barrier Reef – corals - Bahamas
Barrier reefs
Shoreline
Reef
Back
Patch reefs
~ 400 m
Reef front – Red Sea Reef front – Red Sea
Reef crest – Red Sea Back Reef – Red Sea
7. Grass-stabilized open shelf sediment – back reef Patch reef – water depth < 1m – back reef
Dunes of oolitically coated peloids Cross-bedded Pleistocene grainstones
Leduc Formation
Upper Devonian
Sabkha
9. Buildups Through the Ages
Cenozoic
Reef-building organisms have changed
through time
Sedimentological roles of reef-building
organisms haven’t changed
Siluro-Devonian
Early Proterozoic
Sequence Stratigraphy Sequence Stratigraphy
Carbonate systems are similar to Carbonate systems are similar to
clastic systems, but: clastic systems, but:
1. Carbonate production is commonly 2. Carbonate platforms accumulate at/near
greater than rate of creation of sea level, therefore they are excellent
accommodation (relative sea level rise). indicators for interpreting changes in
During highstands carbonate produced on relative sea level.
platform tops can be shed into adjacent
deep water “highstand shedding”
Sequence Stratigraphy Sequence Stratigraphy
Carbonate systems are similar to Carbonate systems are similar to
clastic systems, but: clastic systems, but:
3. Aggradational margins more common in 4. “Drowning unconformity” can be
carbonate systems: keep-up response to produced by (rapid) increase in water
depth – shuts down carbonate factory.
relative sea level rise. Clastics tend to Surface may be onlapped and
backstep. downlapped by other sediments (e.g.,
deepwater clastics). Recognizable in
outcrop/core (“abrupt deepening”) and
seismic data (resembles a sequence
boundary)
10. Sequence Stratigraphy
Carbonate systems are similar to
clastic systems, but:
5. Platforms exposed during lowstand, but
chemically eroded carbonates do not
generate much carbonate debris for
resedimentation as submarine fans on
basin floor
Summary Summary
Carbonates represent in situ Different types of carbonate platforms
generation of sediment Shelves, banks, ramps
Climate Rimmed or unrimmed
Oceanography Platform morphology affects wave
Tectonics energy dissipation/facies distribution
Sediment Supply Vertical successions commonly show
Organism Biology shoaling upward trends
“Carbonate factory” – shallow, Some like clastic shelf/shoreline systems
illuminated seafloor, low (no) Not always “coarsening upward”
siliciclastic supply Many types of successions possible
11. Summary Summary
Various types of “carbonate buildups” Nature of reef-building organisms has
Reefs changed through time
Mounds Stromatoporids, corals, sponges, bivalves,
Bioherms etc.
Biostromes Sedimentological role of reef-building
3 different sub-environments: organisms has not changed
Reef core
Reef flank
Inter-reef
Summary
Sequence stratigraphic character of
carbonate systems has
similarities/differences with clastic
systems