Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body.
## To understand how cancer develops and progresses, researchers first need to investigate the biological differences between normal cells and cancer cells. This work focuses on the mechanisms that underlie fundamental processes such as cell growth, the transformation of normal cells to cancer cells, and the spread, or metastasis, of cancer cells.
UNDERSTANDING OF CHEMICAL CARCINOGENESIS:CURRENT AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Carcinogenesis refers to the process by which a normal cell is transformed into a malignant cell and repeatedly divides to become a cancer
Chemicals which initiate this process is called chemical carcinogens
Chemicals which increase the effectiveness of carcinogens is called co-carcinogens
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS
MECHANISM OF ACTION
STAGES OF CARCINOGENESIS
ROLE OF PROTO-ONCOGENES AND TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES
ACTIVATION OF PROTO ONCOGENES
INACTIVATION OF TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE
OXIDATIVE STRESS IN CARCINOGENESIS
ROS can be produced from both endogenous and exogenous sources
Attack both purine and pyrimidine bases, as well as the deoxyribose backbone
Induces DNA damage which includes single or double-strand breakage, deoxyribose modification, and DNA cross-link
If DNA damage is not properly repaired it may result in mutation which leads to cancer
BIOMARKERS
REGULATORY BACKGROUND
OECD guidelines
451- Carcinogenecity studies
453- Combined chronic toxicity/carcinogenecity
ICH guidelines
S1A- Guideline on the need for carcinogenicity studies of
pharmaceuticals
S1B- Testing for carcinogenicity of pharmaceuticals
S1C- Dose selection for carcinogenicity studies of pharmaceuticals
Cell within a tumor that possess the capacity to self-renew and to cause the heterogeneous lineages of cancer cells that comprise the tumor”.
“CSC can thus only be defined experimentally by their ability to recapitulate the generation of a continuously growing tumor”.
It is about the cancer initiation, progression, metastasis and angiogenesis. In addition to that viruses responsible for the cancer. oncogenes- protooncogenes, factors responsible for cancer, treatment, cell signaling mechanisms involved.
Introduction to Cancer
Stem cells and cancer cells
major pathways that lead to formation of tumors.
Tumor Supressors
Colon cancer to prove Knudson hypothesis.
The modern treatments available to treat cancer.
Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body.
## To understand how cancer develops and progresses, researchers first need to investigate the biological differences between normal cells and cancer cells. This work focuses on the mechanisms that underlie fundamental processes such as cell growth, the transformation of normal cells to cancer cells, and the spread, or metastasis, of cancer cells.
UNDERSTANDING OF CHEMICAL CARCINOGENESIS:CURRENT AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
Carcinogenesis refers to the process by which a normal cell is transformed into a malignant cell and repeatedly divides to become a cancer
Chemicals which initiate this process is called chemical carcinogens
Chemicals which increase the effectiveness of carcinogens is called co-carcinogens
CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL CARCINOGENS
MECHANISM OF ACTION
STAGES OF CARCINOGENESIS
ROLE OF PROTO-ONCOGENES AND TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES
ACTIVATION OF PROTO ONCOGENES
INACTIVATION OF TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE
OXIDATIVE STRESS IN CARCINOGENESIS
ROS can be produced from both endogenous and exogenous sources
Attack both purine and pyrimidine bases, as well as the deoxyribose backbone
Induces DNA damage which includes single or double-strand breakage, deoxyribose modification, and DNA cross-link
If DNA damage is not properly repaired it may result in mutation which leads to cancer
BIOMARKERS
REGULATORY BACKGROUND
OECD guidelines
451- Carcinogenecity studies
453- Combined chronic toxicity/carcinogenecity
ICH guidelines
S1A- Guideline on the need for carcinogenicity studies of
pharmaceuticals
S1B- Testing for carcinogenicity of pharmaceuticals
S1C- Dose selection for carcinogenicity studies of pharmaceuticals
Cell within a tumor that possess the capacity to self-renew and to cause the heterogeneous lineages of cancer cells that comprise the tumor”.
“CSC can thus only be defined experimentally by their ability to recapitulate the generation of a continuously growing tumor”.
It is about the cancer initiation, progression, metastasis and angiogenesis. In addition to that viruses responsible for the cancer. oncogenes- protooncogenes, factors responsible for cancer, treatment, cell signaling mechanisms involved.
Introduction to Cancer
Stem cells and cancer cells
major pathways that lead to formation of tumors.
Tumor Supressors
Colon cancer to prove Knudson hypothesis.
The modern treatments available to treat cancer.
define the cancer, types of tumor cells, TNM classification, staging, cancer cells in different area, etiology, carcinogenesis, sign of cancer, diagnosis, prevention - radiation therapy, chemotherapy, surgical management
Awareness on Cancer
what are the causes for cancer
Terminology
Classification of Cancers
Signs and Symptoms
Stages of Cancers (TSM)
Types of Cancer Treatments
Surgery, Chemotherapy, Radiation Therapy etc
Side effects on treatment
Palliative care
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Factory Supply Best Quality Pmk Oil CAS 28578–16–7 PMK Powder in Stockrebeccabio
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These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
4. Objectives
Definition of Cancer and Tumor
Classification of cancer and tumor
Properties of cancer cell
Cancer cell VS normal cell
Causes of cancer
Signs and symptoms of cancer
Cell death (Apoptosis and necrosis)
Cancer in different organs
Cancer treatments
6. CANCER
An uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of
the body is called cancer.
When good cells go bed.
Loss of Cell-cycle Control.
Before a cell divides, the DNA is checked to make sure
it has replicated correctly. (If DNA does not copy itself
correctly, a gene mutation occurs.
7. TUMAR
Tumor is an abnormal mass of tissue resulting from
uncontrolled division (cancer).
Tumor is of two types;
(1) Malignant tumor (cancerous)
(2) Benign tumor (non-cancerous)
8. (1) Malignant Tumor
Invade or spread to other parts of the body.
High rate of division.
Spread by forming Metastasis.
Cells travel through circulation.
Very difficult to treat.
9. Cancer Metastasis
Metastasis is the spread of cancer to other location in
the body.
The new tumors are called metastatic tumors, while
the original site is called primary tumor.
Basal lamina of epithelium normally provides barrier.
Malignant tumor cells break, free of attachments to
adjoining cells.
Attach to basal lamina.
Secrete enzymes that digest extracellular proteins.
Migrate into circulatory system.
12. (2) Benign Tumor
Do not spread to other part of the body.
Generally localized and of small size
Slow rate of division.
Cells that closely resemble, and may function, like
normal cells.
Do not break out of originating organ.
Easily to removed by surgery.
13. Classification of Cancer
Cancers are classified by the type of cell.
(1) Carcinoma
(2) Sarcoma
(3) Lymphoma and Leukemia
(4) Germ Cell Tumor
(5) Blastoma
14. Classification (Cont…)
(1) Carcinoma:
Cancers derived from epithelial cells.
(2) Sarcoma:
Cancers arising from connective tissue (i.e. bone,
cartilage, blood etc).
(3) Lymphoma and Leukemia:
These two classes of cancer arise from hematopoietic
(blood forming) cells.
15. Classification (Cont…)
(4) Germ Cell Tumor:
Cancers derived from pluripotent cells, most often
presenting in the testicles and ovary (seminoma and
dysgerminoma respectively).
(5) Blastoma:
Cancers derived from immature “precursor” cells or
embryonic tissue.
16. Properties of Cancer Cells
Cancer cells show uncontrolled mitotic divisions causing unorganised
growth.
Due to uncontrolled growth and division of cells, a tumor (also called
Neoplasm is generally formed).
They are far less adhesive than the normal cells.
They exhibit a number of alterations on cell surface, in the cytoplasm
and in their genes.
They do not undergo differentiation.
They lose the ability to communicate with other cells through chemical
signals.
They also lose sensitivity to anti-growth signals from surrounding cells.
They lose the adhesion molecules that keep them bonded to
neighboring cells.
Cancer arises from a loss of normal growth control.
17. Cont….
Cancer is a genetic disease:
–Inherited cancer
–Sporadic cancer
Cancer typically involves a change in gene expression/function:
–Qualitative change
–Quantitative change
lack of contact inhibition
Loss of limitations on the number of cell divisions
Ability to grow in culture (medium) – normal cells do not grow well in
culture.
In laboratory cultures, normal cells divide only when attached to a
surface.
Angiogenesis – secrete substances that cause blood vessels to grow
towards tumor.
23. Normal Cell VS Cancer Cell
.
Cells anchor to dish surface and
divide (anchorage dependent).
When cells have formed a
complete single layer, they stop
dividing (density-dependent
inhibition).
If some cells are scraped away,
the remaining cells divide to fill
the dish with a single layer and
then stop (density-dependent
inhibition).
25. Normal Cell VS Cancer Cell
Cells in culture and in vivo exhibit
contact-inhibition
Cancer cells lack contact inhibition
feedback mechanisms. Clumps or
foci develop.
26. Causes of Cancer
The great majority of cancers 90-95% cases, are due to
environmental factors.
The remaining 5-10% are due to inherited genetics.
28. (2) Inherited Genetics
Cancer is fundamentally a disease of tissue growth
regulation failure.
In order for a normal cell to transform into a cancer
cell, the genes that regulate cell growth and
differentiation must be altered.
The affected genes are divided into two broad
categories;
(i) Oncogenes
(ii) Tumor Suppressor Genes
29. (Cont…)
(i) Oncogenes:
Oncogenes are genes that promote cell growth and
reproduction.
(ii) Tumor Suppressor Genes:
Tumor suppressor genes are genes that inhibit cell
division and survivals.
30.
31.
32. Signs and Symptoms
When cancer begins, it invariably produces no
symptoms.
Signs and symptoms only appear as the mass continues
to grow (tumor).
34. Cell Death
There are two types of cell death;
(1) Apoptosis
(2) Necrosis
35. Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)
Apoptosis is a tightly regulated form of cell death, also
called the programmed cell death. Morphologically, it is
characterized by chromatin condensation and cell
shrinkage in the early stage. Then the nucleus and
cytoplasm fragment, forming membrane-bound apoptotic
bodies which can be engulfed by phagocytes.
Initiated by signal transduction process.
Does not cause inflammation.
Ends with fragmentation of cell into smaller bodies.
36. Necrosis (Lethal Injury)
In contrast, cells undergo another form of cell death,
necrosis, swell and rupture. The released intracellular
contents can damage surrounding cells and often cause
inflammation.
Un-programmed cell death and living tissues. (opposite to
apoptosis).
Initiated by direct cell damage mostly physically.
Cause inflammation.
Ends with total cell lysis.
40. Lung Cancer
In 2013, 174,470 people died from lung cancer
Since 1987, more women have died from lung
cancer that breast cancer
Symptoms: persistent cough, blood-streaked sputum,
chest pain
42. Breast Cancer
1 out of 8 women will develop breast cancer
(lifetime risk)
1 in 227: birth to age 39
1 in 25: ages 40-59
1 in 15: ages 60-79
Detection: mammograms, regular breast self-exams
Symptoms: lump in the breast, thickening, dimpling,
skin irritation, distortion or tenderness
43. (Cont…)
Risk factors: family history, hyperplasia, long menstrual
history, obesity after menopause, oral contraceptives
Treatment: lumpectomy, radical mastectomy, radiation,
chemotherapy
Prevention: exercise
44. Colon And Rectal Cancers
Third most common cancer in men and women with over
148,610 new cases diagnosed in 2013
Risk factors: over 50 years old, obese, family history of
colon or rectum cancer or polyps, diets high in fats, low in
fiber, smoking, high alcohol consumption, lack of exercise
90% of colorectal cancers are preventable
45. (Cont…)
Treatment: radiation, surgery, and possible
chemotherapy
Prevention: regular exercise, a diet heavy in fruits and
plant-origin foods, a health weight, and moderation in
alcohol consumption
46. Prostate Cancer
Most common cancer in American men, excluding skin
cancer
In 2013, 234,460 new cases diagnosed
1 in 3 men will be diagnosed in their lifetime
Prostate is a muscular, walnut-sized gland the surrounds
part of the urethra. Its primary function is to produce
seminal fluid.
47. (Cont…)
Symptoms: nonspecific, weak or interrupted urine flow,
difficulty starting or stopping urination
Risk factors: age, race, nationality, family history, diet,
lifestyle, and vasectomy
Prevention: diet high in lycopenes, vitamin E
48. Skin Cancer
Long term effects of sun exposure can result in skin cancer
Malignant melanoma, deadliest form of skin cancer
Sun give off 3 types of harmful rays:
UVA
UVB
UVC
Prevention: limit exposure to harmful UV rays, drink
more fluids than usual, apply cool compresses to skin,
moisturize skin
49. (Cont…)
What to look for – The ABCD rule
Asymmetry – half of mole does not look like the other half
Border irregularity – the edges are uneven
Color – pigmentation is not uniform
Diameter – greater than 6mm
50. Testicular Cancer
Affects nearly 8,250 young men in 2013
Men between the ages 15-35 are at the greatest risk
Important to practice regular testicular self exams
Lance Armstrong Foundation “LiveStrong” campaign
to raise awareness
51. Ovarian Cancer
Fifth leading cause of cancer death for women, 20,180 new
cases diagnosed reported in 2012
Most common symptom is enlargement of the abdomen
Risk factors include: family history, age, childbearing,
cancer history, fertility drugs, talc use in genital area,
genetic predisposition
52. Cont….
Prevention: diet high in vegetables and low in fat,
exercise, sleep, stress management, and weight control
53. Cervical and Endometrial (Uterine)
Cancer
9,710 new cases of cervical cancer, 41,200 cases of
endometrial cancer in 2010
Pap test – cells are taken from the cervical region
Risk factors:
Cervical cancer: early age at first intercourse, multiple
sex partners, cigarette smoking, and certain STIs
Endometrial cancer: age, endometrial hyperplasia,
overweight, diabetes, and high blood pressure