Bubble Memory and Magnetic Core Memory and NVRAM
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Volatile memory requires power to maintain stored information, like magnetic core memory. Non-volatile memory can retain information without power, such as Bubble memory and NVRAM. Bubble memory uses a magnetic sheet with magnetic domains ("bubbles") that can be moved through a pattern of magnetic guides to store and access data, making it non-volatile solid state memory suitable for portable applications. However, bubble memory has slow access times since accessing a bit requires cycling through other bits in large memory loops.
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India’s roads are congested and of poor quality. Lane capacity is low - most national highways are two lanes or less. A quarter of all India's highways are congested. Many roads are of poor quality and road maintenance remains under-funded - only around one-third of maintenance needs are met. This leads to the deterioration of roads and high transport costs for users. Rural Bike
Rural areas have poor access. Roads are significant for the development of the rural areas - home to almost 70 percent of India's population. Although the rural road network is extensive, some 33 percent of India’s villages do not have access to all-weather roads and remain cut off during the monsoon season. The problem is more acute in India's northern and northeastern states which are poorly linked to the country’s major economic centers.
The railways are facing severe capacity constraints. All the country’s high-density rail corridors face severe capacity constraints. Also, freight transportation costs by rail are much higher than in most countries as freight tariffs in India have been kept high to subsidize passenger traffic.
Urban centres are severely congested. In Mumbai, Delhi and other metropolitan centers, roads are often severly congested during the rush hours. The dramatic growth in vehicle ownership during the past decade - has reduced rush hour speeds especially in the central areas of major cities.
Ports are congested and inefficient. Port traffic has more than doubled during the 1990s, touching 650 million tons in 2006-07. This is expected to grow further to about 900 million tons by 2011-12. India's ports need to significantly ramp up their capacity and efficiency to meet this surging demand.
Airport infrastructure is strained. Air traffic has been growing rapidly leading to severe strain on infrastructure at major airports, especially in the Delhi and Mumbai airports which account for more than 40 percent of nation’s air traffic.
TRADITIONAL MEANS
MODERN MEANS
CHALLENGES OF TRANSPORTATION
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Indian Railways is a state-owned monopoly that operates the largest rail network in the world. It was established in 1853 and nationalized in 1951. As a monopoly, Indian Railways faces no competition and is able to engage in price discrimination by charging different prices for tickets based on factors like distance traveled, age, and location of purchase. While this allows it to benefit certain customer groups, it also allows Indian Railways to potentially charge high prices overall due to its complete control of the market. Looking ahead, Indian Railways is seeking to increase non-fare revenue sources like station redevelopment and advertising.
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The document discusses various modes of transportation in India including rail, road, air, and maritime transport. It provides details on:
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- 1. Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Eg. magnetic core memory Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not powered. Eg. Bubble memory and NVRAM.
- 2. This image demonstrates the difference between "ordinary" ferromagnetic materials (above), and orthomagnetic materials (below): The latter only form magnetic poles (indicated on the samples by red/white color gradient) if the external field provided by the big magnet poles at left and right is aligned with the orthomagnetic axis, as indicated by the little black arrows.
- 3. This image shows the orthomagnetic "sheet" used in magnetic bubble memory; it has its orthomagnetic axis perpendicular to the square surface. Even without an external field, it tends to form these sharply divided areas, some with north pole up/south pole down, others with the poles the other way around. The term describing this property is uniaxial magnetic anisotropy.
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- 5. This image shows how external fields (symbolized by small magnets left and right) working at an angle can "push" and "pull" domains, or "bubbles" in the orthomagnetic sheet of a magnetic bubble element
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