Voyager 1 was launched in 1977 to take advantage of a rare alignment of the outer planets. It conducted flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, and was designed to last 5 years but is still operating over 35 years later. Voyager 1 carries instruments to study the solar system and a Golden Record with photos and sounds of Earth. It has traveled over 18 billion km from Earth and will be the first human-made object to leave the solar system.
The Voyager program launched two probes, Voyager 1 and 2, in 1977 to study Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. During their "Grand Tour" of the outer planets, the probes discovered many details about the planets and their moons, such as volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io. After completing their primary mission in 1989, the Voyagers continue their journey into interstellar space, having sent back over a trillion bits of scientific data. They carry a "Golden Record" containing sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth to any intelligent extraterrestrial entities who may find them.
Voyager 1 and 2 were NASA probes launched in 1977 to study Jupiter and Saturn. They explored these planets, taking the first close-up pictures. Voyager 2 also studied Uranus and Neptune, becoming the only probes to visit those outer planets. The Voyagers continue their journey into interstellar space, making them humanity's furthest voyages.
1) India successfully launched its first unmanned lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1, in October 2008 using the PSLV rocket to place it in orbit around the moon.
2) Chandrayaan-1 carried 11 instruments from India and other countries to perform remote sensing of the moon and map its surface to help unravel mysteries about the moon's composition and formation.
3) Over a planned two-year mission, Chandrayaan-1 will map the moon's surface in high resolution and investigate the polar regions, which may contain water ice.
This document provides information about space exploration and notable figures in space history. It discusses the first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1), the first humans to orbit Earth (Yuri Gagarin) and walk on the moon (Neil Armstrong, Eugene Cernan), the first woman in space (Valentina Tereshkova), and Indian achievements like Rakesh Sharma being the first Indian in space and the Mars Orbiter Mission. It also briefly describes the International Space Station and provides some bonus facts about space.
The document provides an overview of the International Space Station (ISS). It discusses the origins and assembly of the ISS in low Earth orbit beginning in 1998. The purpose of the ISS is for scientific research in fields like biology, physics, and meteorology as well as testing technologies for future exploration missions. Six agencies representing 15 countries are collaborators on the ISS program.
Chandrayan 2 Presentation- launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Center in Sr...KeralaOnline
Presenting Chandrayan 2 Power Point Presentation.All Details About Chandrayaan 2.Inages,Details of Chandrayan 2.Chandrayaan-2 launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Center in Sriharikota, India, aboard a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) rocket on July 22, 2019 and reached lunar orbit on August.
Chandrayaan 2 mission details. The rocket and it's payloads are explained. Pictures taken by the orbiter are also listed. It also talks about the different experiments that were supposed to be carried by the rover. The reason for the mission failure and future isro projects like Chandrayaan 3 are discussed.
Voyager 1 was launched in 1977 to take advantage of a rare alignment of the outer planets. It conducted flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, and was designed to last 5 years but is still operating over 35 years later. Voyager 1 carries instruments to study the solar system and a Golden Record with photos and sounds of Earth. It has traveled over 18 billion km from Earth and will be the first human-made object to leave the solar system.
The Voyager program launched two probes, Voyager 1 and 2, in 1977 to study Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. During their "Grand Tour" of the outer planets, the probes discovered many details about the planets and their moons, such as volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io. After completing their primary mission in 1989, the Voyagers continue their journey into interstellar space, having sent back over a trillion bits of scientific data. They carry a "Golden Record" containing sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on Earth to any intelligent extraterrestrial entities who may find them.
Voyager 1 and 2 were NASA probes launched in 1977 to study Jupiter and Saturn. They explored these planets, taking the first close-up pictures. Voyager 2 also studied Uranus and Neptune, becoming the only probes to visit those outer planets. The Voyagers continue their journey into interstellar space, making them humanity's furthest voyages.
1) India successfully launched its first unmanned lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1, in October 2008 using the PSLV rocket to place it in orbit around the moon.
2) Chandrayaan-1 carried 11 instruments from India and other countries to perform remote sensing of the moon and map its surface to help unravel mysteries about the moon's composition and formation.
3) Over a planned two-year mission, Chandrayaan-1 will map the moon's surface in high resolution and investigate the polar regions, which may contain water ice.
This document provides information about space exploration and notable figures in space history. It discusses the first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1), the first humans to orbit Earth (Yuri Gagarin) and walk on the moon (Neil Armstrong, Eugene Cernan), the first woman in space (Valentina Tereshkova), and Indian achievements like Rakesh Sharma being the first Indian in space and the Mars Orbiter Mission. It also briefly describes the International Space Station and provides some bonus facts about space.
The document provides an overview of the International Space Station (ISS). It discusses the origins and assembly of the ISS in low Earth orbit beginning in 1998. The purpose of the ISS is for scientific research in fields like biology, physics, and meteorology as well as testing technologies for future exploration missions. Six agencies representing 15 countries are collaborators on the ISS program.
Chandrayan 2 Presentation- launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Center in Sr...KeralaOnline
Presenting Chandrayan 2 Power Point Presentation.All Details About Chandrayaan 2.Inages,Details of Chandrayan 2.Chandrayaan-2 launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Center in Sriharikota, India, aboard a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) rocket on July 22, 2019 and reached lunar orbit on August.
Chandrayaan 2 mission details. The rocket and it's payloads are explained. Pictures taken by the orbiter are also listed. It also talks about the different experiments that were supposed to be carried by the rover. The reason for the mission failure and future isro projects like Chandrayaan 3 are discussed.
Chandrayaan-1 was India's first lunar orbiter mission, launched in 2007-2008. It was designed to conduct high-resolution remote sensing of the lunar surface using visible, infrared, X-ray and gamma ray instruments over a planned 2-year operational life. The orbiter's objectives included producing a 3D topographical map of the moon and studying the distribution of minerals and chemical elements on the lunar surface. Chandrayaan-1 helped advance India's space science capabilities and achieved its mission goals before its operations concluded in 2009.
The document provides details about satellite communication history and technology. It discusses key events like the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 as the first artificial satellite and describes various satellite systems including low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO), and geostationary orbit (GEO). It also covers topics like how satellites are launched, orbital velocities, satellite costs, and components of a basic satellite system.
NASA's mission is to pioneer space exploration, scientific discovery, and aeronautics research. It has six strategic goals including completing the International Space Station, developing a new crew vehicle after the shuttle's retirement, and establishing a lunar return program. NASA is organized into four mission directorates: Aeronautics, Exploration Systems, Science, and Space Operations. The document provides a brief history of NASA and outlines some of its current and future missions including completing the ISS, returning to the moon by 2020, and developing new technologies to explore beyond low Earth orbit.
Este documento fornece um resumo do Sistema Solar, incluindo o Sol, os planetas rochosos Mercúrio, Vênus, Terra e Marte, e os planetas gasosos Júpiter, Saturno, Urano e Netuno. Também discute asteroides, luas planetárias e missões espaciais a esses corpos celestes.
Chandrayaan-1 was India's first lunar mission, launched in 2008 with objectives of mapping the lunar surface and studying its composition. It orbited the Moon at 100km, carrying scientific instruments from India and other countries. While the mission ended earlier than planned after communication was lost, it was successful in confirming the presence of water ice and completing 95% of its goals to analyze the Moon's mineral and chemical makeup through high-resolution imaging.
PLEASE LIKE IF GOOD AND YOU ALSO CAN DOWNLOAD IT AND SHOW IT TO YOUR TEACHER AS YOUR PROJECT BUT PLEASE TAKE CARE CHANGE THE NAME BECAUSE I HAD SHOWN IT IN DAHANU'S S.D.I.L.A SCHOOL FOR I.T PROJECT OR ANY OTHER SUBJECT. THANK YOU AND HAVE A NICE DAY.
Chandrayaan-3 represents India's ambitious lunar exploration mission, featuring an advanced lander module equipped with sophisticated sensors and electronics to enhance navigation, landing precision, and scientific investigations on the lunar surface. The lander incorporates high-performance processors and components to withstand lunar conditions while supporting resource-intensive analysis using upgraded spectrometers, high-resolution cameras, and thermal sensors on its scientific payload. This third Indian lunar mission demonstrates the country's growing technological capabilities in space exploration and aims to advance our understanding of the Moon.
The document provides a history of major events in space exploration from 1957 to 1998. It begins with the Soviet Union launching Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2, carrying the first animal into space. The US launched its first satellites Explorer 1 and Vanguard 1 in response. NASA was formed in 1958 to lead US space initiatives. The space race then involved firsts such as putting humans into space and on the moon. International cooperation grew over time, culminating in the launch of the International Space Station module in 1998.
Vishal Kumar Singh is a student in the Electrical Engineering department at Future Institute of Engineering & Management. The document discusses India's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also known as Mangalyaan, which was launched in November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation. MOM's objectives are to study the Martian surface, atmosphere, and explore the exosphere. It carries five scientific payloads including cameras, spectrometers, and sensors to analyze Mars' terrain, mineral composition, atmospheric gases like methane, and neutral atmospheric components. MOM was launched using the PSLV-XL rocket and performed orbital maneuvers to reach Mars, where it will study the planet upon entering orbit in September 2014.
Chandrayaan-2 is India's second lunar mission consisting of an orbiter, lander, and rover. It was launched in July 2019 and successfully placed the orbiter in lunar orbit in August. The mission aims to study the moon's topography, mineral composition, and presence of water ice. In September, the lander Vikram attempted to soft land in the south polar region but lost communication during its final descent. Onboard instruments include terrain mapping cameras, spectrometers, and a synthetic aperture radar on the orbiter as well as seismic and thermal sensors on the lander. The rover Pragyan was to explore the landing site for 14 earth days using laser and alpha particle spectrometers. While the
The International Space Station is the 10th largest engineering project in the world. It was launched in 1998 and took 10 years to build, with contributions from 16 countries. The ISS orbits Earth every 90 minutes at a speed of 17,500 mph and serves as a laboratory for research that benefits life on Earth. It is significantly larger than previous space stations and has over 50 computers controlling its various functions.
Chandrayaan 3 is India's third lunar mission, consisting of an orbiter, lander, and rover. It was launched on July 14, 2023 with the objectives of demonstrating soft landing and roving capability on the lunar surface. The spacecraft was successfully placed in the trajectory towards the Moon, with an anticipated soft landing on the South Pole region on August 23. Chandrayaan 3 aims to study the composition of the lunar surface and search for water ice in the soil to advance understanding of the Moon's evolution. It is a collaborative mission between ISRO and ESA that aims to make important scientific discoveries.
Telescopes and space-based observation tools allow humans to observe and study objects in space. Telescopes use lenses and mirrors to collect electromagnetic radiation and produce magnified images. The largest optical telescopes are in Hawaii, with an even larger one currently under construction. Space-based tools like satellites, probes, and rovers have been launched to observe space without atmospheric interference and visit other celestial bodies. The Voyager probes left our solar system, carrying messages about humanity. The International Space Station is an orbiting laboratory built from parts delivered by shuttles and rockets.
The document summarizes information about the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). In 3 sentences:
The HST has been orbiting Earth for over two decades, helping answer astronomical questions and uncover new mysteries. It has changed astronomy by investigating things like black holes and planets around other stars. Some of Hubble's key discoveries include finding over 3,000 galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field, which revealed distant galaxies, and imaging exoplanets like Fomalhaut b.
The document discusses India's Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission, including its successful launch on July 22, 2019. It describes the mission objectives to improve understanding of the moon and conduct scientific experiments. Chandrayaan-2 consists of an orbiter, lander (Vikram), and rover (Pragyan) that will operate in lunar orbit and on the lunar surface. The mission aims to explore the south pole region of the Moon.
This document provides an overview and statistics on the global space economy in 2017. Some key points:
- The US government space budget decreased 2.5% but remained near its 10-year average of $44.12 billion.
- Non-US government space budgets increased 16% to an all-time high of $32.853 billion.
- Commercial space revenues grew, with satellite manufacturing up 41% and overall commercial space products and services up 8.28%.
- The commercial sector now makes up 80.1% of the global space economy, valued at $307.317 billion in 2017.
The document discusses the history and achievements of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It details how ISRO was established in 1969 and has since launched numerous satellites, including communication, earth observation, and deep space satellites. Some of ISRO's major accomplishments include launching the first Indian satellite in 1975, developing the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), launching Chandrayaan-1 to the moon in 2008, and launching a record 104 satellites in a single mission in 2017. ISRO has established India as a major player in space technology and exploration.
Hubble Telescope is used to observe in the near-infrared through the visible spectrum to the ultra-violet.
This Telescope is placed above the distortion of the atmosphere, far above rain clouds and light pollution.
Its advantage to avoid atmospheric turbulence.It has an extremely large field of view which is necessary to obtain high resolution images of large areas of the sky.
Astronaut Reid Wiseman tweeted a photo from the International Space Station showing a toy from his childhood floating in space. The document then provides a summary of the most impressive space photos from 2014, including photos taken by Wiseman from the ISS of Earth's landscapes, cities, natural disasters and the moon. It concludes with several close up photos of astronomical objects and phenomena taken by NASA satellites and space telescopes.
Astronomy1013 WritingCPresented by Summary of th.docxikirkton
Astronomy 1013: Writing C
Presented by:
Summary of the video
The twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft are exploring where nothing from Earth has flown before. Continuing on their more-than-37-year journey since their 1977 launches, they each are much farther away from Earth and the sun than Pluto. In August 2012, Voyager 1 made the historic entry into interstellar space, the region between stars, filled with material ejected by the death of nearby stars millions of years ago.
Scientists hope to learn more about this region when Voyager 2, in the “heliosheath" -- the outermost layer of the heliosphere where the solar wind is slowed by the pressure of interstellar medium -- also reaches interstellar space. Both spacecraft are still sending scientific information about their surroundings through the Deep Space Network, or DSN.
Summary of the video
The primary mission was the exploration of Jupiter and Saturn. After making a string of discoveries there -- such as active volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io and intricacies of Saturn's rings -- the mission was extended. Voyager 2 went on to explore Uranus and Neptune, and is still the only spacecraft to have visited those outer planets.
Voyager 2 is a space probe launched by NASA on August 20, 1977 to study the outer planets. Part of the Voyager program, it was launched 16 days before its twin, Voyager 1, on a trajectory that took longer to reach Jupiter and Saturn but enabled further encounters with Uranus and Neptune. It is the only spacecraft to have ever visited either of the ice giants.
How science works
its primary mission ended with the exploration of the Neptunian system on October 2, 1989, after having visited the Uranian system in 1986, the Saturnian system in 1981, and the Jovian system in 1979. Voyager 2 is now in its extended mission to study the outer reaches of the Solar System and has been operating for 38 years, 2 months and 11 days. It remains in contact through the Deep Space Network.
science depends on interactions within the scientific community. Different parts of the process of science may be carried out by different people at different times and this mission has made space exploration history by becoming the first spacecraft from Earth to leave the solar system behind and enter interstellar space.
How science works
The "assist" is provided by the motion of the gravitating body as it pulls on the spacecraft. It was used by interplanetary probes from Mariner 10 onwards, including the two Voyager probes' notable flybys of Jupiter and Saturn.
Voyager 1 first detected the increased pressure of interstellar space on the heliosphere, the bubble of charged particles surrounding the sun that reaches far beyond the outer planets, in 2004. Scientists then ramped up their search for evidence of the spacecraft's interstellar arrival, knowing the data analysis and interpretation could take months or years. The science behind "The team’s hard work to build durable spacecraft and ...
Chandrayaan-1 was India's first lunar orbiter mission, launched in 2007-2008. It was designed to conduct high-resolution remote sensing of the lunar surface using visible, infrared, X-ray and gamma ray instruments over a planned 2-year operational life. The orbiter's objectives included producing a 3D topographical map of the moon and studying the distribution of minerals and chemical elements on the lunar surface. Chandrayaan-1 helped advance India's space science capabilities and achieved its mission goals before its operations concluded in 2009.
The document provides details about satellite communication history and technology. It discusses key events like the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957 as the first artificial satellite and describes various satellite systems including low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit (MEO), and geostationary orbit (GEO). It also covers topics like how satellites are launched, orbital velocities, satellite costs, and components of a basic satellite system.
NASA's mission is to pioneer space exploration, scientific discovery, and aeronautics research. It has six strategic goals including completing the International Space Station, developing a new crew vehicle after the shuttle's retirement, and establishing a lunar return program. NASA is organized into four mission directorates: Aeronautics, Exploration Systems, Science, and Space Operations. The document provides a brief history of NASA and outlines some of its current and future missions including completing the ISS, returning to the moon by 2020, and developing new technologies to explore beyond low Earth orbit.
Este documento fornece um resumo do Sistema Solar, incluindo o Sol, os planetas rochosos Mercúrio, Vênus, Terra e Marte, e os planetas gasosos Júpiter, Saturno, Urano e Netuno. Também discute asteroides, luas planetárias e missões espaciais a esses corpos celestes.
Chandrayaan-1 was India's first lunar mission, launched in 2008 with objectives of mapping the lunar surface and studying its composition. It orbited the Moon at 100km, carrying scientific instruments from India and other countries. While the mission ended earlier than planned after communication was lost, it was successful in confirming the presence of water ice and completing 95% of its goals to analyze the Moon's mineral and chemical makeup through high-resolution imaging.
PLEASE LIKE IF GOOD AND YOU ALSO CAN DOWNLOAD IT AND SHOW IT TO YOUR TEACHER AS YOUR PROJECT BUT PLEASE TAKE CARE CHANGE THE NAME BECAUSE I HAD SHOWN IT IN DAHANU'S S.D.I.L.A SCHOOL FOR I.T PROJECT OR ANY OTHER SUBJECT. THANK YOU AND HAVE A NICE DAY.
Chandrayaan-3 represents India's ambitious lunar exploration mission, featuring an advanced lander module equipped with sophisticated sensors and electronics to enhance navigation, landing precision, and scientific investigations on the lunar surface. The lander incorporates high-performance processors and components to withstand lunar conditions while supporting resource-intensive analysis using upgraded spectrometers, high-resolution cameras, and thermal sensors on its scientific payload. This third Indian lunar mission demonstrates the country's growing technological capabilities in space exploration and aims to advance our understanding of the Moon.
The document provides a history of major events in space exploration from 1957 to 1998. It begins with the Soviet Union launching Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2, carrying the first animal into space. The US launched its first satellites Explorer 1 and Vanguard 1 in response. NASA was formed in 1958 to lead US space initiatives. The space race then involved firsts such as putting humans into space and on the moon. International cooperation grew over time, culminating in the launch of the International Space Station module in 1998.
Vishal Kumar Singh is a student in the Electrical Engineering department at Future Institute of Engineering & Management. The document discusses India's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), also known as Mangalyaan, which was launched in November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation. MOM's objectives are to study the Martian surface, atmosphere, and explore the exosphere. It carries five scientific payloads including cameras, spectrometers, and sensors to analyze Mars' terrain, mineral composition, atmospheric gases like methane, and neutral atmospheric components. MOM was launched using the PSLV-XL rocket and performed orbital maneuvers to reach Mars, where it will study the planet upon entering orbit in September 2014.
Chandrayaan-2 is India's second lunar mission consisting of an orbiter, lander, and rover. It was launched in July 2019 and successfully placed the orbiter in lunar orbit in August. The mission aims to study the moon's topography, mineral composition, and presence of water ice. In September, the lander Vikram attempted to soft land in the south polar region but lost communication during its final descent. Onboard instruments include terrain mapping cameras, spectrometers, and a synthetic aperture radar on the orbiter as well as seismic and thermal sensors on the lander. The rover Pragyan was to explore the landing site for 14 earth days using laser and alpha particle spectrometers. While the
The International Space Station is the 10th largest engineering project in the world. It was launched in 1998 and took 10 years to build, with contributions from 16 countries. The ISS orbits Earth every 90 minutes at a speed of 17,500 mph and serves as a laboratory for research that benefits life on Earth. It is significantly larger than previous space stations and has over 50 computers controlling its various functions.
Chandrayaan 3 is India's third lunar mission, consisting of an orbiter, lander, and rover. It was launched on July 14, 2023 with the objectives of demonstrating soft landing and roving capability on the lunar surface. The spacecraft was successfully placed in the trajectory towards the Moon, with an anticipated soft landing on the South Pole region on August 23. Chandrayaan 3 aims to study the composition of the lunar surface and search for water ice in the soil to advance understanding of the Moon's evolution. It is a collaborative mission between ISRO and ESA that aims to make important scientific discoveries.
Telescopes and space-based observation tools allow humans to observe and study objects in space. Telescopes use lenses and mirrors to collect electromagnetic radiation and produce magnified images. The largest optical telescopes are in Hawaii, with an even larger one currently under construction. Space-based tools like satellites, probes, and rovers have been launched to observe space without atmospheric interference and visit other celestial bodies. The Voyager probes left our solar system, carrying messages about humanity. The International Space Station is an orbiting laboratory built from parts delivered by shuttles and rockets.
The document summarizes information about the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). In 3 sentences:
The HST has been orbiting Earth for over two decades, helping answer astronomical questions and uncover new mysteries. It has changed astronomy by investigating things like black holes and planets around other stars. Some of Hubble's key discoveries include finding over 3,000 galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field, which revealed distant galaxies, and imaging exoplanets like Fomalhaut b.
The document discusses India's Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission, including its successful launch on July 22, 2019. It describes the mission objectives to improve understanding of the moon and conduct scientific experiments. Chandrayaan-2 consists of an orbiter, lander (Vikram), and rover (Pragyan) that will operate in lunar orbit and on the lunar surface. The mission aims to explore the south pole region of the Moon.
This document provides an overview and statistics on the global space economy in 2017. Some key points:
- The US government space budget decreased 2.5% but remained near its 10-year average of $44.12 billion.
- Non-US government space budgets increased 16% to an all-time high of $32.853 billion.
- Commercial space revenues grew, with satellite manufacturing up 41% and overall commercial space products and services up 8.28%.
- The commercial sector now makes up 80.1% of the global space economy, valued at $307.317 billion in 2017.
The document discusses the history and achievements of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It details how ISRO was established in 1969 and has since launched numerous satellites, including communication, earth observation, and deep space satellites. Some of ISRO's major accomplishments include launching the first Indian satellite in 1975, developing the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), launching Chandrayaan-1 to the moon in 2008, and launching a record 104 satellites in a single mission in 2017. ISRO has established India as a major player in space technology and exploration.
Hubble Telescope is used to observe in the near-infrared through the visible spectrum to the ultra-violet.
This Telescope is placed above the distortion of the atmosphere, far above rain clouds and light pollution.
Its advantage to avoid atmospheric turbulence.It has an extremely large field of view which is necessary to obtain high resolution images of large areas of the sky.
Astronaut Reid Wiseman tweeted a photo from the International Space Station showing a toy from his childhood floating in space. The document then provides a summary of the most impressive space photos from 2014, including photos taken by Wiseman from the ISS of Earth's landscapes, cities, natural disasters and the moon. It concludes with several close up photos of astronomical objects and phenomena taken by NASA satellites and space telescopes.
Astronomy1013 WritingCPresented by Summary of th.docxikirkton
Astronomy 1013: Writing C
Presented by:
Summary of the video
The twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft are exploring where nothing from Earth has flown before. Continuing on their more-than-37-year journey since their 1977 launches, they each are much farther away from Earth and the sun than Pluto. In August 2012, Voyager 1 made the historic entry into interstellar space, the region between stars, filled with material ejected by the death of nearby stars millions of years ago.
Scientists hope to learn more about this region when Voyager 2, in the “heliosheath" -- the outermost layer of the heliosphere where the solar wind is slowed by the pressure of interstellar medium -- also reaches interstellar space. Both spacecraft are still sending scientific information about their surroundings through the Deep Space Network, or DSN.
Summary of the video
The primary mission was the exploration of Jupiter and Saturn. After making a string of discoveries there -- such as active volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io and intricacies of Saturn's rings -- the mission was extended. Voyager 2 went on to explore Uranus and Neptune, and is still the only spacecraft to have visited those outer planets.
Voyager 2 is a space probe launched by NASA on August 20, 1977 to study the outer planets. Part of the Voyager program, it was launched 16 days before its twin, Voyager 1, on a trajectory that took longer to reach Jupiter and Saturn but enabled further encounters with Uranus and Neptune. It is the only spacecraft to have ever visited either of the ice giants.
How science works
its primary mission ended with the exploration of the Neptunian system on October 2, 1989, after having visited the Uranian system in 1986, the Saturnian system in 1981, and the Jovian system in 1979. Voyager 2 is now in its extended mission to study the outer reaches of the Solar System and has been operating for 38 years, 2 months and 11 days. It remains in contact through the Deep Space Network.
science depends on interactions within the scientific community. Different parts of the process of science may be carried out by different people at different times and this mission has made space exploration history by becoming the first spacecraft from Earth to leave the solar system behind and enter interstellar space.
How science works
The "assist" is provided by the motion of the gravitating body as it pulls on the spacecraft. It was used by interplanetary probes from Mariner 10 onwards, including the two Voyager probes' notable flybys of Jupiter and Saturn.
Voyager 1 first detected the increased pressure of interstellar space on the heliosphere, the bubble of charged particles surrounding the sun that reaches far beyond the outer planets, in 2004. Scientists then ramped up their search for evidence of the spacecraft's interstellar arrival, knowing the data analysis and interpretation could take months or years. The science behind "The team’s hard work to build durable spacecraft and ...
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Thank you.
The Juno mission is a NASA mission to study Jupiter through a spacecraft placed in a highly elliptical polar orbit around the planet. Juno launched in 2011 and arrived at Jupiter in 2016, where it began collecting data over 37 orbits to better understand Jupiter's composition, gravity and magnetic fields, and polar auroras. This data will help scientists better understand how Jupiter formed and evolved, as well as the early development of our own solar system. Key instruments onboard Juno include magnetometers, microwave radiometers, and cameras to observe Jupiter's interior, atmosphere, magnetosphere and auroras.
The Voyager 1 and 2 missions were launched by NASA in 1977 to explore Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The total cost was $865 million. The Galileo spacecraft, also launched by NASA in 1989, explored Jupiter and its moon Europa which may contain water, making it a target for potential life. Both missions greatly exceeded their intended durations, with Voyager still operating over 40 years later to explore the outer limits of the solar system.
2023 NASA Science Calendar Print Resolution.pdfickyvip
This document provides a summary of NASA science activities and discoveries in 2022-2023. Some key points include:
- The James Webb Space Telescope revealed its first images in 2022, providing new views of the early universe.
- The Artemis program is preparing for crewed missions to return humans to the Moon and explore further.
- NASA continues Mars exploration with the Perseverance rover collecting samples for future return to Earth.
- Upcoming Earth System Observatory missions will improve understanding of climate change and natural hazards.
- NASA science fuels new technologies and workforce opportunities through robotic and crewed missions.
Satellites, Space Transports, and Space Probeselliotlh123
The document discusses several space exploration technologies including the Hubble Space Telescope, the Very Large Array radio telescope, Mars rovers like Viking 1 and Spirit, Apollo moon missions like Apollo 16, early satellites like Sputnik 1 and 2, and observation satellites. It provides details on the design, capabilities, and scientific objectives of these different technologies that have advanced humanity's understanding of space.
The Voyager flights to Jupiter and Saturn were NASA missions launched in 1977 that took advantage of a rare planetary alignment to visit multiple outer planets using gravitational assists. Voyager 1 and 2 were each complex, long-lived spacecraft carrying instruments to study the planets, rings, moons, and environments. Voyager 1's encounter with Jupiter in 1979 revealed active volcanoes on Io and details of Jupiter's atmosphere, while both probes provided the first close images of Jupiter's moons."
The document provides a summary of notable space and astronomy pictures from 2013, including:
1) Hubble telescope photos of the Horsehead Nebula and a map of relic radiation from the Big Bang composed from Planck satellite data.
2) Photos from Mars including the Curiosity rover drilling into a rock and findings suggesting Mars could have once supported life.
3) Photos of Saturn from Cassini including its rings, hexagonal polar vortex, and storms; and photos of the Milky Way from space and Earth.
Over the last decade, Southwest Research Institute has expanded its space science program to encompass five spacecraft missions ranging from studies of Earth's magnetosphere to the outer boundaries of the solar system. Some key ongoing and upcoming missions mentioned include IBEX to image the edge of the solar system, Juno to study Jupiter, MMS to examine magnetic reconnection around Earth, New Horizons to flyby Pluto, and Cassini continuing studies at Saturn. The institute is also involved in developing instruments and conducting research for various current and future NASA planetary science missions.
Its official voyager_has_left_the_solar_systemSérgio Sacani
1) After 36 years of traveling away from Earth, the Voyager 1 spacecraft may have finally crossed into interstellar space based on new data.
2) In August 2012, Voyager 1 detected a sharp drop in cosmic rays from inside the heliosphere and an increase in cosmic rays from outside, but the magnetic field did not change direction as expected. This led to debate over whether it had truly crossed the boundary.
3) In April 2013, Voyager detected plasma oscillations at a frequency implying a plasma density 80 times higher than inside the heliosphere, suggesting it had crossed into interstellar space in August 2012. While some researchers still disagree, this is now the consensus of the Voyager team.
NASA's Juno spacecraft successfully entered Jupiter's orbit on July 4, 2016 after a 35-minute engine burn that decreased its velocity. This marks a major milestone for the mission, which aims to study Jupiter's composition, gravity field, magnetic field, and polar magnetosphere. Over the coming months, Juno will perform instrument checks and early science collection before its official science collection phase begins in October. The successful orbit insertion indicates the spacecraft is performing well and ready to investigate Jupiter and help scientists better understand the formation and evolution of giant planets.
New Horizons was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto, capturing the first high-resolution images of its surface in July 2015. It is now en route to a Kuiper Belt object called 2014 MU69, which it will reach on January 1, 2019. The spacecraft has provided valuable new insights into Pluto and its moons, such as evidence of past geological activity on Pluto and a possible subsurface ocean on Charon, but communicating with it is challenging due to its great distance from Earth.
The twin Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft are exploring where nothing from Earth has flown before. Continuing on their more-than-40-year journey since their 1977 launches, they each are much farther away from Earth and the sun than Pluto. In August 2012, Voyager 1 made the historic entry into interstellar space, the region between stars, filled with material ejected by the death of nearby stars millions of years ago. Voyager 2 entered interstellar space on November 5, 2018 and scientists hope to learn more about this region. Both spacecraft are still sending scientific information about their surroundings through the Deep Space Network, or DSN.
The primary mission was the exploration of Jupiter and Saturn. After making a string of discoveries there — such as active volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io and intricacies of Saturn's rings — the mission was extended. Voyager 2 went on to explore Uranus and Neptune, and is still the only spacecraft to have visited those outer planets. The adventurers' current mission, the Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM), will explore the outermost edge of the Sun's domain. And beyond.
Journey of Rosetta to comet 67P - Satellite CommunicationSaiChaitanya13
The European Space Agency's Rosetta mission involved sending a spacecraft on a decade-long journey to rendezvous with and study comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. In 2014, Rosetta deployed the Philae lander, which achieved the first controlled landing on a comet nucleus. Philae transmitted data from the surface for 60 hours before losing power. Analysis showed the surface was harder than expected. Future contact may be possible if the comet brings Philae close enough to the sun to recharge its batteries in August 2015. The mission has provided the first detections of organic molecules on a comet, offering clues about the early solar system.
This document provides information on various astronomical tools. It describes different types of telescopes such as refracting telescopes which use lenses and reflecting telescopes which use mirrors. It discusses radio telescopes, space telescopes, and notable space telescopes such as Hubble, Chandra, and Fermi. Space probes, rockets, spaceshuts, rovers, and observatories are also summarized. Important early space missions involving animals and astronauts are mentioned.
Nasa's Curiosity rover is nearing Mars and will attempt a difficult landing on Monday, August 6th to search for signs that Mars could once have supported life. The rover is in excellent condition as it approaches Mars at 13,000 km/h. It faces a challenging automated landing sequence to slow its descent and lower it to the surface of Gale Crater using rockets and cables. Engineers are monitoring the landing from JPL in California but there will be a 13 minute communication delay. The landing attempt is a major challenge but could yield insights into Mars' potential for past life.
This is a 2024 NASA Calendar . This has information such as Rear Admiral Evelyn Fields is the first woman and first African American to lead
the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps, which is one of the nation’s eight uniformed
services. Fields began her career at NOAA as a cartographer in 1972, only two years
after the agency formed. Less than a year later, the NOAA Corps began accepting
women into its commissioned officer ranks, and she became the first African American
woman to join. Fields became a rear admiral and director of both NOAA Corps
and the Office of Marine and Aviation Operations in 1999. She is the first woman
to become a NOAA Corps rear admiral. Fields retired in late 2003. Photo credit:
NOAA/Military Officer Association of America and Dr. Eric Cornell is a co-principal investigator on NASA’s Cold Atom Lab and
a fellow at JILA, a joint institute between the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) and the University of Colorado Boulder. His research
focuses on ultracold atoms and on precision metrology (the scientific study
of measurement) in the service of fundamental physics. Along with Dr. Carl
Wieman and Dr. Wolfgang Ketterle, he was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize for
the first experimental realization of a Bose-Einstein condensate—a fifth state of
matter first predicted in 1917. Today, the techniques that Cornell helped develop
for cooling atoms to ultracold temperatures are used in laboratories around the
world and on the International Space Station by the Cold Atom Lab. Photo credit:
University of Colorado Boulder
The document summarizes several major developments in space exploration from the past year, including Ireland's first space mission called Cumar, Scott Kelly and Mikhail Kornienko's year-long mission aboard the International Space Station, Hubble Telescope turning 25 years old, MESSENGER spacecraft's final images of Mercury before crashing into it, discoveries of potential planets beyond Pluto and water on Mars and Saturn's moon Enceladus, Earth-like exoplanet Kepler-452b found, New Horizons spacecraft's flyby of Pluto and observations of its moons, and Philae lander's touchdown on comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko as part of the Rosetta mission.
The document summarizes the telecom sector in India. It states that India has the second largest telecom market in the world. As of April 2016, there were over 1 billion mobile subscribers in India, with urban areas having higher teledensity than rural areas. The sector contributes significantly to India's GDP. The market has grown due to liberal government policies and the sector is expected to generate millions of jobs. The entry of Reliance Jio in 2016 with cheap 4G plans disrupted the market and forced other operators to lower prices. However, Jio also faced issues like call drops due to actions of other operators, which led to regulatory interventions. A large spectrum auction was held in 2016.
The document summarizes the telecom sector in India. It states that India has the second largest telecom market in the world. As of April 2016, there were over 1 billion mobile subscribers in India, with urban areas having higher teledensity than rural areas. The sector contributes significantly to India's GDP. The market has grown due to liberal government policies and the sector is expected to generate millions of jobs. The entry of Reliance Jio in 2016 with cheap 4G plans disrupted the market, gaining over 35 million subscribers quickly and forcing other operators to lower prices. However, Jio also faced issues like call drops due to actions of other operators, which led to regulatory interventions. A large spectrum auction was held in 2016.
Windowing techniques of fir filter designRohan Nagpal
Windowing techniques are used in FIR filter design to convert an infinite impulse response to a finite impulse response. The process involves choosing a desired frequency response, taking the inverse Fourier transform to get the impulse response, multiplying the impulse response by a window function, and realizing the filter. Common window functions include rectangular, Hanning, Hamming, and Blackman windows, which are selected based on the required stopband attenuation. The windowing technique allows designing FIR filters with a simple process but lacks flexibility compared to other design methods.
Indian Railways - A public sector economyRohan Nagpal
Indian Railways is a state-owned monopoly that operates the largest rail network in the world. It was established in 1853 and nationalized in 1951. As a monopoly, Indian Railways faces no competition and is able to engage in price discrimination by charging different prices for tickets based on factors like distance traveled, age, and location of purchase. While this allows it to benefit certain customer groups, it also allows Indian Railways to potentially charge high prices overall due to its complete control of the market. Looking ahead, Indian Railways is seeking to increase non-fare revenue sources like station redevelopment and advertising.
The document discusses household wiring and electrical safety. It describes the different types of wiring systems used in homes like tree and ring systems. It explains single phase and three phase power supply and the appropriate voltages used. Safety aspects like proper wire sizing and fuse ratings are covered. Guidelines for home wiring as per ISI specifications are provided such as total circuit load, switchboard heights and allowing no wiring above ceilings. Proper grounding is emphasized to prevent electric shocks.
Bubble Memory and Magnetic Core Memory and NVRAMRohan Nagpal
Volatile memory requires power to maintain stored information, like magnetic core memory. Non-volatile memory can retain information without power, such as Bubble memory and NVRAM. Bubble memory uses a magnetic sheet with magnetic domains ("bubbles") that can be moved through a pattern of magnetic guides to store and access data, making it non-volatile solid state memory suitable for portable applications. However, bubble memory has slow access times since accessing a bit requires cycling through other bits in large memory loops.
Time DIvision Multiplexing ApplicationsRohan Nagpal
Time division multiplexing (TDM) allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by carrying signals at different time intervals. A research paper proposes a mixed signal built-in self-test (BIST) scheme using TDM comparators and counters to test analog circuits. The scheme converts circuit responses to digital signatures using TDM comparators. Counters connected to comparators count 1s at each time slot to generate signatures. This flexible and low-hardware scheme allows monitoring internal nodes in addition to outputs. Simulation results show the scheme can test a low-pass filter and determine a pass/fail result. The paper concludes the TDM BIST scheme provides an efficient, minimum-hardware approach for analog and mixed-
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
Carbonyls undergo addition reactions with a large range of nucleophiles.
Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
Electronic effects (inductive effects, electron donation) have a large impact on reactivity.
Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
2. THE BUDDING IDEA!
The Voyager Program was similar to the Planetary Grand Tour planned during the
late 1960s and early 70s.
Special alignment of outer planets discovered by Gary Flandro, an aerospace
engineer
This alignment, which occurs once every 175 years,would occur in the late 1970s
and make it possible to use gravitational assists to explore Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Neptune, and Pluto.
3. SPACECRAFT DESIGN
The Voyager spacecraft weigh 773 kilograms. Of this, 105 kilograms are scientific
instruments.
The identical Voyager spacecraft use three-axis-stabilized guidance systems that use
gyroscopic and accelerometer inputs to their altitude control computers to point their
high-gain antennas towards the Earth.
The scan platform comprises: the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest
camera at top right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS); the two Imaging Science
Subsystem (ISS) vidicon cameras to the left of the UVS; and the Photopolarimeter
System (PPS) under the ISS.
4. COMMUNICATIONS
The uplink communications are executed via S-band microwave communications.
The downlink communications are carried out by an X-band microwave
transmitter on board the spacecraft, with an S-band transmitter as a back-up.
All long-range communications to and from the two Voyagers have been carried
out using their 3.7-meter high-gain antennas.
Because of the inverse-square law in radio communications, the digital data rates
used in the downlinks from the Voyagers have been continually decreasing the
farther that they get from the Earth.
5. POWER
Electrical power is supplied by three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs).
They are powered by plutonium-238 and provided approximately 470 W at 30 volts DC
when the spacecraft was launched.
Plutonium-238 decays with a half-life of 87.74 years,so RTGs using Pu-238 will lose a
factor of 1−0.5(1/87.74) = 0.79% of their power output per year.
By 7 October 2011 the power generated by Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 had dropped to
267.9 W and 269.2 W respectively, about 57% of the power at launch. As the electrical
power decreases, spacecraft loads must be turned off, eliminating some capabilities.
6. WHEN DIDTHEY LAUNCH?
From the NASA Kennedy Space Centre at Cape Canaveral, Florida
Voyager 2 was launched first, on August 20, 1977
Voyager 1 was launched on a faster, shorter trajectory on September 5, 1977.
7. WHATWASTHEIR MISSION?
The primary mission was the exploration of Jupiter and Saturn.
After making a string of discoveries there -- such as active volcanoes on Jupiter's
moon Io and intricacies of Saturn's rings -- the mission was extended.
Voyager 2 went on to explore Uranus and Neptune, and is still the only spacecraft
to have visited those outer planets.
8. WHAT ISTHEIR MISSION NOW?
The adventurers' current mission, the Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM), will explore
the outermost edge of the Sun's domain. And beyond.
This extended mission is continuing to characterize the outer solar system
environment and search for the heliopause boundary, the outer limits of the Sun's
magnetic field and outward flow of the solar wind.
Penetration of the heliopause boundary between the solar wind and the interstellar
medium will allow measurements to be made of the interstellar fields, particles and
waves unaffected by the solar wind.
13. CASH ME OUSSIDE, HOW BOW DAH?
On 15 June 2012, scientists at NASA reported that Voyager 1 was very close to
entering interstellar space, indicated by a sharp rise in high-energy particles from
outside the Solar System.
In September 2013, NASA announced that Voyager 1 had crossed the heliopause
on August 25, 2012, making it the first spacecraft to enter interstellar space
14. THE SLOW DEATH!
As of 2017, after almost 40 years of launch of Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, they
continue to monitor conditions in the outer expanses of the Solar System.
The Voyager spacecraft are expected to be able to operate science instruments
through 2020, when limited power will require instruments to be deactivated one
by one.
Sometime around 2025, there will no longer be sufficient power to operate any
science instruments.
15. “MURMURS OF EARTH”
NASA placed a more ambitious message aboard Voyager 1 and 2-a
kind of time capsule, intended to communicate a story of our world to
extra-terrestrials.
The Voyager message is carried by a phonograph containing sounds
and images selected to portray the diversity of life and culture on
Earth.
To this they added musical selections from different cultures and eras,
and spoken greetings from Earth-people in fifty-five languages
including hindi and gujrati.
16. By the time you got to know about the Voyagers,
they have already moved about 20,000km further into
the deep space since the beginning of this
presentation and still going further………
Editor's Notes
This has been a major problem for NASA . So between 1982 and 1989 they made major changes to their deep space network to reduce the effects of inverse square law.