The brain receives its arterial blood supply from the internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries. The internal carotid artery enters the cranium and gives off branches including the anterior cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery. The vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery which splits into the posterior cerebral arteries. These arteries anastomose to form the Circle of Willis, which provides an alternative blood supply if one of the arteries is occluded. Occlusion of specific arteries can cause deficits in regions supplied by that artery.
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
understanding spinal cord, its bransches, lesions, functions and anatomy.
hope to give you better knowledge of spinal cord by the end of it.
plese review ans comment for my future updates and corrections that iw ill be needing in this.
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
understanding spinal cord, its bransches, lesions, functions and anatomy.
hope to give you better knowledge of spinal cord by the end of it.
plese review ans comment for my future updates and corrections that iw ill be needing in this.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
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Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
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combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
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AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
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drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
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Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
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Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
2. Arterial Blood Supply
• Arterial blood supply of the brain
• Brain is supplied by
pairs of internal carotid artery and vetebral
artery.
3. Internal Carotid Artery
• Internal carotid artery: branch off from
common carotid artery, enters brain from
carotid canal, splits into middle and
anterior cerebral artery under the anterior
perforated substance
• Before internal carotid artery splits into the
terminal branches, it gives off:
4. Branches from ICA
• 1). Hypophysial
arteries: further splits into
– anterior hypophysial artery: supply
hypothalamus. The anterior hypophysial artery
breaks into capillaries forming the hypophyseal
portal veins which convey hormones from
hypothalamus into anterior pituitary.
– posterior hypophysial artery: supply neural
lobe of the pituitary
5. Branches from ICA
• 2). Ophthalmic artery: supply eyes,
paranasal sinuses and parts of the nose
• 3). Posterior communicating artery:
runs backward to join the posterior
cerebral artery
• 4). Anterior choroidal artery: supplies
choroid plexus of temporal horn of lateral
ventricles and other areas including optic
tract, uncus, hippocampus, lateral
geniculate nucleus, etc.
6.
7. Occlusion of internal carotid
artery
1. ipsilateral blindness (ophthalmic A)
2. half vision of the contralateral eye
(infarction of optic nerve, lateral geniculate
body supplied by anterior choroidal A)
8. Terminal Branches
• Middle Cerebral Artery:
– bigger branch of the two terminal branches
– It branches off frontal, parietal, and temporal
branches supplying primary motor and premotor
cortex, frontal eye field, primary somatosensary area.
– Left middle cerebral artery supplies language
center.
Occlusion of middle cerebral artery: paralysis of face,
arm, aphasia (language center)
9. • Anterior Cerebral Artery:
– meets together to form anterior communicating artery
before they join, gives off recurrent artery of Heubner,
also called medial straite artery, supplies corpus
striatum.
10. • It then ascends along the longitudinal fissure then bends
backward around the genu of the corpus callosum. It
branches into pericallosal artery, along the upper surface
of corpus callosum and callosomarginal artery follows
the cingulate sulcus, which has three branches (anterior
medial frontal, medial frontal medial, and posterior
medial frontal)
11.
12.
13. Anterior Cerebral A
• Occlusion of anterior cerebral artery
• contralateral paralysis and sensory deficits
in the leg and perineum, urinary
incontinence. Often with mental confusion.
14. Vertebrobasilar system
• Vertebral artery, branch from the subclavian
artery, joins together to form the basilar artery.
The latter artery splits into posterior cerebral
arteries.
15. Vertebrobasilar system
• Branches off the vertebral artery
1. spinal artery: anterior spinal artery: one
formed by branches from each vertebral
artery
2. posterior spinal artery: one on each side
3 . posterior inferior cerebellar artery
(PICA) largest branch off vertebral artery,
supplies cerebellar hemisphere, inferior
vermis, etc.
16.
17. Basilar artery
• Branches off basilar artery
• 1. anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA)
supplies inferior surface of the cerebellum
2. labyrinthine artery supplies the membranous
labyrinth of the internal ear
3. Pontine arteries supply pons and pontine
tegmentum
4. superior cerebellar artery supplies pons,
superior cerebellar peduncle, and inferior
colliculus, etc.
18.
19. Basilar artery
• Occlusion of basilar artery: basilar
artery: coma, die soon, loss control of
respiration center
• labyrinthine artery: deafness, vestibular
dysfunction (vertigo, fall)
20. Posterior cerebral artery
• Posterior cerebral artery gives off
– 1. Posterior medial central artery
– 2. temporal artery: temporal lobe
– 3. calcarine artery: supplies primary and
association cortex for vision
– 4. parietooccipital branches: parietal and
occipital lobes
– 5. posterior choroidal artery: choroid plexus
located at central part of the lateral ventricle,
third ventricle, etc.
21. Circle of Willis
• Consists:
– anterior communicating, anterior cerebral,
internal carotid (short segment), posterior
communicating, and posterior cerebral
arteries. Normally not too much blood flow,
could be served as alternative route if one of
the artery in occluded.
•
22. • Common site for aneurysms, terminal part of internal
carotid artery anterior communicating artery proximal of
middle cerebral artery
• Groups of arteries arise from the circle
– 1. anteromedial group: branch from anterior cerebral
and communicating artery provides blood to
hypothalamus
– 2. anterolateral group: branch from middle cerebral
artery
– 3. posteromedial: branches from posterior cerebral
and posterior communicating arteries