The brain receives its arterial blood supply from two internal carotid arteries and two vertebral arteries. These vessels form an anastomosis called the circle of Willis at the base of the brain. The internal carotid arteries supply the anterior circulation to most of the forebrain, while the vertebral arteries contribute to the posterior or vertebrobasilar circulation to the brainstem and cerebellum. Disruption of blood flow to the brain for more than a few minutes can cause permanent neurological damage through ischemic strokes or hemorrhages such as those from aneurysms.
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
This powerpoint presentation covers the blood supply to the CNS. It is important for Pre-clinical students taking a course in Neuroanatomy. Please make all necessary comments and suggestions.
Referred from different sources , here i present a very concise presentation on CRANIAL CAVITY . This presentation will give you complete knowledge of the topic cranial cavity with well elaborated and intellectual diagrams hand picked from F. Netter. ......... Do like and share , Leave your comments so as to get more stuff like this in future.
Anatomy, components parts, and blood supply of eyeball.
Hello friends..you can use these notes for your convenience as they are taken from many other standard books.. Thank you.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
1. ARTERIAL SUPPLY OF THE
BRAIN
Dr. Vibhash kumar Vaidya
Department of Anatomy
2. Vascular supply and drainage of the brain:-
The brain is a highly vascular organ, its profuse blood supply characterized by a
densely branching arterial network.
It has a high metabolic rate that reflects the energy requirements of constant neural
activity. It receives about 15% of the cardiac output and utilizes 25% of the total
oxygen consumption of the body.
The brain is supplied by two internal carotid arteries and two vertebral arteries that
form a complex anastomosis (circulus arteriosus, circle of Willis) on the base of the
brain.
Venous blood from the brain drains into sinuses within the Dura mater.
Acute interruption of the blood supply to the brain for more than a few minutes causes
permanent
neurological damage. Such ischaemic strokes along with intracranial haemorrhage are
major contemporary sources of morbidity and mortality.
Vibhash Vaidya
3. ARTERIAL SUPPLYOF THE BRAIN
The arterial supply of the brain is derived from the internal carotid and
vertebral arteries, which lie, together with their proximal branches, within
the subarachnoid space at the base of the brain.
Vibhash Vaidya
INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY:-
The internal carotid arteries and their major branches (the internal carotid system or ‘anterior’
circulation) supply blood to the majority of the forebrain. Some parts of the occipital and temporal
lobes are supplied by branches of the vertebrobasilar system.
The internal carotid artery arises from the bifurcation of the common carotid artery, ascends in the
neck and enters the carotid canal of the temporal bone.
Its subsequent course is said to have:-
1. petrous parts 2. cavernous parts 3.intracranial parts.
5. Vibhash Vaidya
Fig. The arteries supplying the left cerebral hemispheres. A, Lateral surface. B, Medial surface.
6. Vibhash Vaidya
1. Petrous part:-
Course- The petrous part of the internal carotid artery ascends in the carotid canal, curves
anteromedially and then superomedially above the cartilage that fills the foramen lacerum,
and enters the cranial cavity.
Branches-
1. The caroticotympanic artery:- It is a small, occasionally double, vessel which enters the
tympanic cavity by a foramen in the carotid canal and anastomoses with the anterior tympanic
branch of the maxillary artery and the stylomastoid artery.
2. The pterygoid artery:- It is inconsistent: when present, it enters the pterygoid canal with the
nerve of the same name, and anastomoses with a (recurrent) branch of the greater palatine
artery.
7. Vibhash Vaidya
2. Cavernous part
Course- The cavernous part of the internal carotid artery ascends to the posterior clinoid process. It
turns anteriorly to the side of the sphenoid within the cavernous sinus and then curves up medial to
the anterior clinoid process, to emerge through the dural roof of the sinus.
The oculomotor, trochlear, ophthalmic and abducens nerves are lateral to it within the cavernous
sinus.
Occasionally, the two clinoid processes form a bony ring round the artery.
3. Intracranial part
Course-After piercing the Dura mater, the internal carotid artery turns back below the optic nerve to
run between it and the oculomotor nerve. It reaches the anterior perforated substance at the medial
end of the lateral fissure and terminates by dividing into-
the anterior and middle cerebral arteries.
8. Vibhash Vaidya
1. Ophthalmic artery - arises from the anterior part of the internal carotid as it leaves the
cavernous sinus, often at the point of piercing the dura, and enters the orbit through the optic canal.
2. Posterior communicating artery –
• Runs back from the internal carotid above the oculomotor nerve, and anastomoses with the posterior
cerebral artery (a terminal branch of the basilar artery), thereby contributing to the circulus arteriosus
around the interpeduncular fossa.
• The posterior communicating artery is usually very small. However, sometimes it is so large that the
posterior cerebral artery is supplied via the posterior communicating artery rather than from the basilar
artery (‘fetal posterior communicating artery'); it is often larger on one side only.
9. Vibhash Vaidya
Fig. The arteries on the base of the brain. The anterior part of the left temporal lobe has been removed to display
the initial course of the middle cerebral artery within the lateral fissure.
10. Vibhash Vaidya
Fig. The circulus arteriosus on the base of the brain showing the distribution of central (perforating or ganglionic)
branches.
11. Vibhash Vaidya
3. ANTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY-
• The anterior cerebral artery is the smaller of the two terminal branches of the internal carotid.
• The anterior cerebral artery starts at the medial end of the stem of the lateral fissure.
• It passes anteromedially above the optic nerve to the great longitudinal fissure where it connects with
its fellow by a short transverse anterior communicating artery.
• The anterior communicating artery is about 4 mm in length and may be double. It gives off numerous
anteromedial central branches that supply the optic chiasma, lamina terminalis, hypothalamus, para-
olfactory areas, anterior columns of the fornix and the cingulate gyrus.
• The two anterior cerebral arteries travel together in the great longitudinal fissure.
• They pass around the curve of the genu of the corpus callosum and then along its upper surface to its
posterior end, where they anastomose with posterior cerebral arteries .They give off cortical and
central branches.
NOTE:- Surgical nomenclature divides the vessel into three parts: A1 – from the termination of the internal carotid artery to the junction
with the anterior communicating artery; A2 – from the junction with the anterior communicating artery to the origin of the
callosomarginal artery; and A3 – distal to the origin of the callosomarginal artery; this segment is also known as the pericallosal
artery.
12. Vibhash Vaidya
Fig. The major arteries supplying the medial, A, and lateral, B, aspects of the brain.
13. Vibhash Vaidya
4. MIDDLE CEREBRALARTERY
• The middle cerebral artery is the larger terminal branch of the internal carotid.
• The middle cerebral artery runs at first in the lateral fissure, then posterosuperiorly on the insula,
and divides into branches distributed to the insula and the adjacent lateral cerebral surface. Like
the anterior cerebral artery, it has cortical and central branches.
NOTE:- Surgical nomenclature divides the vessel into four parts:
M1 – from the termination of the internal carotid artery to the bi/trifurcation, this segment is also known as the
sphenoidal;
M2 – the segment running in the lateral (Sylvian) fissure, also known as the insular;
M3 – coming out of the lateral fissure, also known as the opercular; and M4 – cortical portions.
14. Vibhash Vaidya
VERTEBRALARTERY-
• The vertebral arteries and their major branches (sometimes referred to as the ‘vertebrobasilar system')
essentially supply blood to the upper spinal cord, the brain stem and cerebellum and a significant but
variable part of the posterior cerebral hemispheres.
• The vertebral arteries are derived from the subclavian arteries. They ascend through the neck in the
foramina transversaria of the upper six cervical vertebrae and enter the cranial cavity through the
foramen magnum, close to the anterolateral aspect of the medulla .
• They converge medially as they ascend the medulla and unite to form the midline basilar artery at
approximately the level of the junction between the medulla and pons.
• One or two meningeal branches arise from the vertebral artery near the foramen magnum and ramify
between the bone and dura mater in the posterior cranial fossa. They supply bone, diploë and the falx
cerebelli.
• A small anterior spinal artery arises near the end of the vertebral artery, and descends anterior to the
medulla oblongata to unite with its fellow from the opposite side at mid-medullary level. The single trunk
then descends on the ventral midline of the spinal cord.
• The largest branch of the vertebral artery is the posterior inferior cerebellar artery.
15. Vibhash Vaidya
1. BASILARARTERY-
• The basilar artery is a large median vessel formed by the union of the vertebral arteries at the mid-
medullary level. It lies in the pontine cistern, and follows a shallow median groove on the ventral pontine
surface, extending to the upper border of the pons. It ends by dividing into two posterior cerebral arteries
at a variable level behind the dorsum sellae, usually in the interpeduncular cistern.
• Branches:-
• Anterior inferior cerebellar artery
• Labyrinthine artery
• Pontine branch
• Superior cerebellar artery
• Posterior cerebellar artery
16. Vibhash Vaidya
POSTERIOR CEREBRALARTERY:-
• The posterior cerebral artery is a terminal branch of the basilar artery.
• The posterior cerebral artery is larger than the superior cerebellar artery, from which it is
separated near its origin by the oculomotor nerve, and, lateral to the midbrain, by the trochlear
nerve.
• It passes laterally, parallel with the superior cerebellar artery, and receives the posterior
communicating artery. It then winds round the cerebral peduncle and reaches the tentorial
cerebral surface, where it supplies the temporal and occipital lobes. Like the anterior and middle
cerebral arteries, the posterior cerebral artery has cortical and central branches.
NOTE:- Surgical nomenclature divides the vessel into three parts: P1 – from the basilar bifurcation to the junction
with the posterior communicating artery; P2 – from the junction with the posterior communicating artery to the
portion in the perimesencephalic cistern; and P3 – the portion that runs in the calcarine fissure.
17. Vibhash Vaidya
CIRCULUS ARTERIOSUS / CIRCULE OF WILLIS-
• The circulus arteriosus (circle of Willis) is a large arterial anastomosis which unites the internal carotid and
vertebrobasilar systems.
• It lies in the subarachnoid space within the interpeduncular cistern, and surrounds the optic chiasma and
infundibulum.
• Anteriorly, the anterior cerebral arteries, derived from the internal carotid arteries, are linked by the small
anterior communicating artery. Posteriorly, the two posterior cerebral arteries, formed by the division of
the basilar artery, are joined to the ipsilateral internal carotid artery by a posterior communicating artery.
• There is considerable individual variation in the pattern and calibre of vessels that make up the circulus
arteriosus. Although a complete circular channel almost always exists, one vessel is usually sufficiently
narrowed to reduce its role as a collateral route and the circle is rarely functionally complete.
19. INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE
A. Aneurysms
● circumscribed dilations (ectasias) of an artery.
1. Berry (saccular) aneurysms
● typically develop at arterial bifurcations. The cerebral arterial circle contains 60% of
aneurysms; 30% arise from the middle cerebral artery; and the remaining 10% are found
in the vertebrobasilar system.
● of the anterior communicating artery may pressure the optic chiasm and cause a bitemporal lower
quadrantanopia.
● of the posterior communicating artery may cause a oculomotor nerve palsy.
● rupture is a common cause of nontraumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage.
2. Microaneurysms (Charcot–Bouchard aneurysms)
● found in small arteries, most frequently within the territory of the middle cerebral artery (i.e., the
lenticulostriate arteries).
● rupture occurs most frequently in the basal nuclei and is the commonest cause of nontraumatic
intraparenchymal hemorrhage.
Vibhash Vaidya
20. B. Subdural hemorrhage (hematoma)
● results from rupture of the superior cerebral veins, the “bridging” veins that drain into the
superior sagittal sinus.
C. Epidural hemorrhage (hematoma)
● typically result from rupture of the middle meningeal artery that lies between the dura mater
and the inner table of the skull.
Vibhash Vaidya