This document provides an introduction to parasitology, including definitions and classifications of parasites, hosts, and their relationships. It discusses different types of parasites such as ectoparasites, endoparasites, temporary vs. permanent parasites. It also covers parasitological terms like vector, disease, infection, and life cycles. Major classifications of parasites are introduced including protozoa, helminths, and arthropods. Specific examples like nematodes are also mentioned.
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria.Archana Shaw
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria: BACTERIA AS A MODEL ORGANISM
THIS WAS MY PRESENTATION TOPIC IN CLASS. THOUGHT OF SHARING IT AND HOPE IT HELPS.
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria.Archana Shaw
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria: BACTERIA AS A MODEL ORGANISM
THIS WAS MY PRESENTATION TOPIC IN CLASS. THOUGHT OF SHARING IT AND HOPE IT HELPS.
Anatomy of Protozoa: Basic structure of protozoan cell. Major organelles protozoan cells and their function. Reproduction and and locomotion in Protozoans.
This article includes Basics classification like binomial nomenclature, Taxa hierarchic, Five kingdoms of Robert H. Whittaker, Levels of Organization, and Classificationa and features of Protozoa, Porifera and Coelenterata
Protozoa (also protozoan, plural protozoans) is an informal term for a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris.
Anatomy of Protozoa: Basic structure of protozoan cell. Major organelles protozoan cells and their function. Reproduction and and locomotion in Protozoans.
This article includes Basics classification like binomial nomenclature, Taxa hierarchic, Five kingdoms of Robert H. Whittaker, Levels of Organization, and Classificationa and features of Protozoa, Porifera and Coelenterata
Protozoa (also protozoan, plural protozoans) is an informal term for a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris.
Host-Parasite relationship is the extreme case of animal association, in which both partners influence each others life by affecting each others metabolism and behaviour using different adaptive mechanisms in order to ensure their survival.
Distinguish between cellular and acellular. Give examples of microorg.pdfarjuntiwari586
Distinguish between cellular and acellular. Give examples of microorganisms in each category.
Describe the distinguishing features of each type of cell. What are the three domains of life?
Describe features of each domain. Escherichia coli is a bacterial species. Identify the genus and
the species. Escherichia coli has different strains. What is the significance of the strain
designation? What contributes to the emergence and/or re-emergence of infectious diseases?
Define the divisions of microbiology: bacteriology, mycology, virology, parasitology, serology,
molecular biology. The following made significant contributions to the field of microbiology,
identify the contribution of each: Leeuwenhoek, Holmes, Semmelweis, Lister, Pasteur, Koch,
Jenner
Solution
2.Unicellular organism is made up of one cell, a being with a cell wall, that gets along fine on its
own (like amoebas, protozoa or bacteria that usually move about all on their own) or which
could get along fine on its own (like yeasts or algae, which usually grow in bunches or
strings).Acellular organisms do not divide into discrete cells following the division of the
nucleus - they just carry on growing and producing more nuclei.Eg:Viruses, viroids, satellites,
plasmids, phagemids, cosmids, transposons and prions.
3. please specify the cells,in human or microbes?
4.The three domains of life are:
(a)EUKARYOTA
The Eukaryota include the organisms that most people are most familiar with - all animals,
plants, fungi, and protists. They also include the vast majority of the organisms that
paleontologists work with. Although they show unbelievable diversity in form, they share
fundamental characteristics of cellular organization, biochemistry, and molecular biology. Eg:
dinoflagellate,single-celled photosynthetic protist; plants; animals; and fungi.
(b)BACTERIA
Bacteria are often maligned as the causes of human and animal disease (like this one, Leptospira,
which causes serious disease in livestock). However, certain bacteria, the actinomycetes, produce
antibiotics such as streptomycin and nocardicin; others live symbiotically in the guts of animals
(including humans) or elsewhere in their bodies, or on the roots of certain plants, converting
nitrogen into a usable form. Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and the sour in sourdough bread;
bacteria help to break down dead organic matter; bacteria make up the base of the food web in
many environments. Bacteria are of such immense importance because of their extreme
flexibility, capacity for rapid growth and reproduction, and great age - the oldest fossils known,
nearly 3.5 billion years old, are fossils of bacteria-like organisms.
(c)ARCHEA
Archaeans include inhabitants of some of the most extreme environments on the planet. Some
live near rift vents in the deep sea at temperatures well over 100 degrees Centigrade. Others live
in hot springs, or in extremely alkaline or acid waters. They have been found thriving inside the
digestive tracts of cows, t.
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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1. University of Duhok
College of Health Sciences
Dep. of Medical Laboratories & Anesthesia
Biology/1st Stage
Lecture 10
Dr.: Shameeran S. Ismael
BVM & S, M.Sc Medical Microbiology(Parasitology),
PhD Molecular Parasitology
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
3. • Parasite:- Any living
organisms (Multicellular or
unicellular organisms) that
lives on or inside another
organism and causing a
diseases.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory. health Sciences, 2021
Introduction
Parasitology:- Is the study of parasites, their hosts, and
the relationship between them
5. :
1. Ectoparasites Parasites: Parasites
that live on the surface of host (e.g.
lice, mite)
2. Endoparasites Parasites: Parasites
that live inside the body of the host,
in the blood, tissues, body cavities,
digestive tract and other organs. (e.g.
Giardia lamblia, Ascaris lumbricoides
etc.) Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
I.Parasite is divided according to
location into:
6. This can be further subdivided, based on their
life cycles:
Temporary parasite: Visits its host for a short
period.
Permanent parasite: leads a parasitic life
throughout the whole period of its life.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
II. Types of parasites
7. Facultative parasites: parasites able to live both
free living and parasite living e.g.
Strongyloides species
Obligatory parasite: If an organism is
completely dependent on the host during a part
or all of its life (Toxoplasma gondii)
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
8. Occasional or Accidental Parasite: Attacks an
unusual host.
Wandering or Aberrant parasite: Happens to
reach a place where it cannot live.
Free living: The term free living describes the
non parasitic stages of existence
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
9. Host and its types
Host: it is an organism that harbors a parasite it supplies
the parasite with nourishment and shelter, it is the injured
partner.
Definitive (final) host: harbors adult or sexually
reproductive stage of a parasite.
Intermediate host: harbors larval or asexually
reproductive stage of a parasite.
. Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
10. Reservoir host(carrier): It is a host which harbor
the parasite and serves as an important source
of infection to other susceptible hosts.
Epidemiologically, reservoir hosts are important
in the control of parasitic disease.
Paratenic Host: ( A carrier and transport host)-A
host where the parasite remains viable without
further development
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
11. General parasitological Terms
• Vector: A carrier, especially the animal that
transfers an infectious agent from one host to
another, usually an arthropods, also the vectors
can be divided into two different types:
1. Biological vectors: vectors may carry
pathogens that can multiply within their
bodies and be delivered to new hosts usually
by biting, such as ticks and mosquitoes.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
12. 2. Mechanical vectors: vectors can pick up
infectious agents on the outside of their bodies
and transmit them through physical contact,
e.g house fly for transport of amoebal cysts
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
13. • Disease: a condition characterized by presence
of clinical signs and symptoms.
• Carrier: a host carrying a parasite but not
showing any clinical signs or symptoms.
• Etiology: the cause of a disease.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
14. Pathogenic: can cause disease in host.
Non pathogenic: does not cause disease in host
(commensal organism).A non-pathogen can infect
man but it causes no harm. It inhabits your body and
multiplies.
Pathogenesis: the processes involved in the
development of the disease (immunological,
biochemical, genetic, and morphological events).
Epidemiology: a field of science dealing with the
relationships of various factors which determine the
frequency, distribution and transmission of infection
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
15. Infection: multiplication of organisms inhabiting the body.
Infective Stage: Is a stage when a parasite can invade human
body and live in it .
Diagnostic Stage:- A developmental stage of a pathogenic
organism that can be detected in stool, blood, urine,
sputum, CSF or other human body secretions.
Zoonosis: Refers to animal’s diseases which can be
transmitted to man.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
16. Infective Route: is the specific entrance through which
the parasite invades the human body.
Route of infection: It is means how the parasite invades
host body. Mechanisms of infection a parasitic
infection may occur by various routes, depending on
the nature of both parasite and host:
1. Feco-oral transmission(Entamoeba histolytica,
Giardia lamblia)
2. Actively penetrate the skin by infective larvae
(Schistosoma Spp.)
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
17. 3.Sexual transmission (Trichomonais vaginalis)
4. Transmission by vector (Malaria)
5. Congenital-Infection with T.gondii and Plasmodium
spp. May be transmitted from mother to fetus
transplacentally.
6.Iatrogenic infection-Malaria parasites may be
transmitted by transfusion of blood from the donor
with malaria containing asexual forms of
erythrocytic schizogony
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
18. Life cycle: Is the process of a parasite’s growth,
development and reproduction. There are two
types of life cycle:
1. Direct life cycle (not required intermediate host).
2. Indirect life cycle (required intermediate host).
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
Life cycle and its types:
19. Classification of parasites:
• There are three Phylum of parasites that are
of Major Medical Importance:-
I.Protozoa
II.Helminths
III.Arthropdes
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
20. Classification of parasites:
• General classification: animal parasites are
classified according to international code taxonomy –
Each parasite belong to a:
• Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
• Some have further divisions to:
Sub – order, super family, sub – species
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
21. • Each parasite have two names i.e. Genus and
species.
• The former begins with an initial capital and the
latter with an initial small letter
• The Genus and species names are in italic, If
italics are not used, each name must be underlined
separately
Entamoeba histolytica
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
Genus Specie
s
How to write the scientific name of
the parasite?
22. • Symbiosis - “living together,” a close association
between two organisms, there are four kinds of
symbiosis:
1.Mutualism - both organisms are benefited
(bacteria in bowel).
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
Parasites, their hosts, and the relationship
between them”
23. 2.Commensalism - “eating at the same table;” One
organism is benefited, and the other is unaffected.
3.Parasitism - A form of symbiosis in which one
organism (called parasite) benefits at the expense of
another organism usually of different species(called
host).
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
24. 4.Phoresis (Phoresy):The term phoresis means “to
carry” . It is a type of symbiotic relationship in
which one organism (the smaller phoront) is
mechanically carried on or in another species (host)
In this relationship, there is no physiological or
biochemical dependence on the part of the host or
symbiont.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
26. Introduction & classification of
Protozoa
• Protozoa are unicellular organisms, under
the kingdom Protista and sub kingdom:
protozoa
• The basic structure of the protozoan body is
the protoplasm.
• Protoplasm is differentiated into the
cytoplasm & nucleus.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
28. I.Cytoplasm: is divided into two parts:
1. Ectoplasm: Transparent external portion of the
cytoplasm. It function locomotion & sensation.
2. Endoplasm :The inner granular portion of the cell. It
contains food vacuoles (which help in digestion of food).
Contain various granules such as glycogen, fat, proteins,
bacteria & pigments etc. Its function are nutrition,
excretion & reproduction.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
29. II.Nucleus
• Consists of a network of fine reticulum enclosed
by a nuclear membrane. Inside the network are
chromatin.
• A mass of concentrated chromatin is called
karyosome
• No. of nucleus may be one or more
• Type of nucleus, may be vesicular with central
karyosome or granular with chromatin grains
• Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
30. • Nutrition: occurs by osmosis (holophytic) or by
ingestion (holozoic).
• Respiration : By osmosis
• Excretion: Excretion of waste products occurs by
contractile vacuoles or by osmosis
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
31. Locomotion organelles
• Protozoa move by basic types of organelles:
1- Flagella
2- Cilia
3-Pseudopodia
4- Undulating ridgs
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
34. General Features OF Nematodes
• Elongated, cylindrical, smooth, unsegmented, flesh-
colored bodies.
• Sex: is separated; the female is usually larger than the
male
• Body is usually tapered to a pointed posterior end, and
to a rounded anterior end.
• The body is covered by cuticle
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
36. •Cuticle is secreted by underlying hypodermis, which project
into the body cavity forming two lateral cord carry the
excretory canals, and a dorsal and ventral cord carrying the
nerves.
Cuticle may be modified to form various structures:
1- Leaf crowns consisting of rows of papillae occurring
as fingers round the rim of the buccal capsule
(internal and external leaf crwon)
2- Cephalic vesicle
3- Cervical vesicle
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
37. Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
4-Cervical ala
5- Cervical papillae
6. Cervical notch
7- Copulatory bursa in some species of male of nematodes,
which embrase the female during copulation. Which is
supported by bursal rays
38. • The muscle cells, arranged longitudinally lie between
hypoderms and the body cavity.
• Locomotion is effected by undulating wave of muscle
contraction and relaxation.
• They absorb oxygen through their skin in a process
known as diffusion.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
Cross section of adult nematodes
39. • They have complete digestive system with mouth,
oesophagus, midgut and end with anus in female,
while in cloaca in male, because the cloaca is the
common opening for both digestive sys. and genital
system.
• Intestine is a tube (enclosed by a single layer of cells)
The type of mouth:
1.The mouth of many nematodes is a simple opening
which may surrounded by two or three lips and leads
directly into the oesophagus.
2- Large and open into a buccal capsule, which may be
contain teeth or cutting plate.
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
41. • The nematodes have direct life cycle, Nematodes have
a relatively simple basic life cycle consisting of an egg
stage, four larval or juvenile stages, and an adult stage
• Stages: egg, L1, L2,L3,L4,L5 (adult)
• Female may be oviparous, viviparous or
ovoviviparous
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
42. Infections is transmitted by:
1) Ingestion of eggs (Ascaris lumbricoides )
2) Penetration of larvae (L3) through surfaces
(Hookworm)
3) Insect bite (Filaria)
4) Ingestion of encysted larvae (Trichnella spiralis)
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021
44. Introduction to Trematoda
• Flattened dorsoventrally, leaf like un-segmented
worms
• Body cavity is absent
• Hermophrodites, except Shistosoma species
(sexes are separated)
• Most flukes have two suckers for attaching to the
host, one close to the mouth (dorsal sucker) and on
the ventral side (ventral sucker).
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45. • Digestive system is simple, the
oral opening leading to a
pharynx, oesophagus & pair of
branched intestinal caeca
which end blindly.
• Excretory system includes:
flame cells, capillaries,
collecting tubules and an
excretory bladder
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46. • The body is covered with tegument, which may
partially or completely covered with spines, tubercles
or smooth
• All member are oviparous.
• Infective stage is usually a encysted metacercria,
except for Schistosoma species is cercaria
• Have indirect life cycle
• Intermediate host is snail
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47. Trematode stages:
• Egg
• Miracidium
• Sporocyst (mother and daughter)
• Redia (redia1 and redia2)
• Cercaria
• Metacercaria and
• Adult
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50. General Features of Cestodes
Segmented tape-like worms & hermaphrodite
Each segment containing one & some time two set of male
& female reproductive
•Flattened dorso-ventrally with out body cavity
• Covered with a protective cuticle
• Each cestode consist of three basic structure: scolex, neck &
strobila
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51. No mouth or gut. (food absorption is through the cuticle)
Scolex, is the organ of attachment, has either suckers or
bothria (groove)
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52. • The neck region is responsible for the formation of new
segments
Strobila (chain of segment). it represents the trunk or body
of adult worm. It composed of various No. of segments:
Echinococcus granulosus (have only 3-4 segments)
D. latum (posses 4000 segments)
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53. There are three types of proglottids:
1. Immature segment (male & female organs
are undifferentiated)
2. Mature segment (male & female organs are
identifiable)
3. Gravid segment, gravid uteri filled with
eggs
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54. Body wall is composed of 3 layers:
1. An outer layer (elastic layer)
2. A middle layer which consist of a circular
muscle layer & longitudinal muscle layer
3. Inner layer, which consist of radially
arranged tegumental cells
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55. Reproductive sys.:
• Have double set or single set of reproductive
organs. Thus the genital pore may be located
bilaterally or unilaterally
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56. There are 2 subclasses:
Cyclophyllidae
Pseudophyllidae
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57. I. In members of cyclophyllidae:
•Organ of fixation are sucker
•Eggs, have two layers & contain a mature embryo,
with contains of 6 hooklets & a hexacanth embryo
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58. II.In members of Pseudophyllidae:
•Organs of fixation are grooves (bothria)
•Eggs are operculated & unembryonated
Diphyllobothrium latum
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59. The life cycle is indirect
All tapeworms require one or more intermediate
hosts (except H.nana)
• The larval stage( metacestodes or larval stage of
cestode) of Cyclophyllidea: (Cysticercus, Coenurus,
strobilocercus, Hydatid cyst, Cysticercoid)
• The larval stage of Pseudophyllidea (procercoid,
plerocercoid)
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61. • Trauma - damage to tissues, intestine, liver, eye.
• Lytic action - activity of enzymes scereted by organism.
• Tissue response - localized inflammation, eosinophilia.
• Blood loss - heavy infection with hookworm may cause
anemia.
• Secondary infections: weakened host susceptible to
bacterial infection, etc.
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Parasitic Damage to Host:
62. Thanks for attention, please check
UOD Moodle and Google classroom
Shameeran S. Ismael/ Biology theory.
health Sciences, 2021