The document discusses bioenergetics and cellular processes related to energy production. It begins by defining bioenergetics as the field concerning energy flow through living systems, including the study of cellular respiration and other metabolic pathways. It then provides an overview of glycolysis, discussing the two phases that convert glucose to pyruvate and produce ATP. The document also summarizes lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, and the citric acid cycle, noting their roles in further oxidizing pyruvate to extract energy through ATP production. Real world examples of these processes in areas like cancer metabolism and food production are also briefly mentioned.
The study of energy in living systems (environments) and the organisms (plants and animals) that utilize them.
I'm a st.Xavier's student . i think this ppt will be helpful to the others. Because this is needed in our daily life.
The study of energy in living systems (environments) and the organisms (plants and animals) that utilize them.
I'm a st.Xavier's student . i think this ppt will be helpful to the others. Because this is needed in our daily life.
Pentose phosphate pathway is also called Hexose monophosphate pathway/ HMP shunt/ Phosphogluconate pathway.
It is an alternative route for the metabolism of glucose.
It is more complex pathway than glycolysis.
It is more anabolic in nature.
It takesplace in cytosol.
The tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, adrenal gland, erythrocytes,testes and lactating mammary gland are highly active in HMP shunt.
It concern with the biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses.
This presentation has detailed information on glycolysis. each step is explained in detail. there are certain videos which i have taken from youtube. if these videos are not viewable u can refer to shomus biology glycolysis videos. u will get a detailed info there.
lehninger 3rd edition is also very good for the structures
Happy studying :)
ATP synthase—also called FoF1 ATPase is the universal protein that terminates oxidative phosphorylation by synthesizing ATP from ADP and phosphate.
ATP Synthase is one of the most important enzymes found in the mitochondria of cells
Complete Glycolysis in short or easy way to understand
Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words glykys = sweet and lysis = splitting.
This pathway was described by EMBDEN,MEYERHOFF and PARNAS. Hence, it is also called EMP PATHWAY.
glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.thus, 4 ATP molecules are synthesised and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. it occur in cytoplasm of animal cells,plant cell.
Pentose phosphate pathway is also called Hexose monophosphate pathway/ HMP shunt/ Phosphogluconate pathway.
It is an alternative route for the metabolism of glucose.
It is more complex pathway than glycolysis.
It is more anabolic in nature.
It takesplace in cytosol.
The tissues such as liver, adipose tissue, adrenal gland, erythrocytes,testes and lactating mammary gland are highly active in HMP shunt.
It concern with the biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses.
This presentation has detailed information on glycolysis. each step is explained in detail. there are certain videos which i have taken from youtube. if these videos are not viewable u can refer to shomus biology glycolysis videos. u will get a detailed info there.
lehninger 3rd edition is also very good for the structures
Happy studying :)
ATP synthase—also called FoF1 ATPase is the universal protein that terminates oxidative phosphorylation by synthesizing ATP from ADP and phosphate.
ATP Synthase is one of the most important enzymes found in the mitochondria of cells
Complete Glycolysis in short or easy way to understand
Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words glykys = sweet and lysis = splitting.
This pathway was described by EMBDEN,MEYERHOFF and PARNAS. Hence, it is also called EMP PATHWAY.
glycolysis is the process in which 1 molecule of glucose broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvic acid.thus, 4 ATP molecules are synthesised and 2 ATP molecules are used during glycolysis. it occur in cytoplasm of animal cells,plant cell.
Functional Programming and Composing Actorslegendofklang
With the world being non-deterministic, with failure being abundant, and with communication latency being very real—how do we design systems that are capable of dealing with these conditions and how can we expose abstractions that are feasible to reason about?
I discuss ways to change the historical negative perspective of a high school math class. I spent the year creating and implementing learning experiences through math projects, inquiry assignments and student-centered lessons which challenge the perspective of a typical math class.
Cellular Energy Transfer (Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle) and ATPmuhammad aleem ijaz
This presentation is all about Cellular Energy Transfer with reference to Glycolysis and Kreb Cycle with all their stages involved.
It also includes ATP production in the body, its importance, structure.
Also contains a comparison of energy production in Krebs and Glycolysis cycle.
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C₆H₁₂O₆, into pyruvate, CH₃COCOO⁻, and a hydrogen ion, H⁺. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP and NADH. Glycolysis is a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Glycolysis is an oxygen-independent metabolic pathway. The wide occurrence of glycolysis indicates that it is an ancient metabolic pathway. Indeed, the reactions that constitute glycolysis and its parallel pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, occur metal-catalyzed under the oxygen-free conditions of the Archean oceans, also in the absence of enzymes.
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine ...
All living cells require energy to carry out various cellular activities.
This energy is stored in organic molecules (e.g. carbohydrates, fats, proteins) that we eat as food.
These organic molecules are broken down into smaller units: proteins into amino acids, polysaccharides into simple sugars, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol by enzymatic reactions in cells to generate energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The ATP generated by these pathways in cells is used to drive fundamental cellular processes.
Glucose is utilized as a source of energy, & stored as glycogen to release glucose as & when the need arises.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
HOT NEW PRODUCT! BIG SALES FAST SHIPPING NOW FROM CHINA!! EU KU DB BK substit...GL Anaacs
Contact us if you are interested:
Email / Skype : kefaya1771@gmail.com
Threema: PXHY5PDH
New BATCH Ku !!! MUCH IN DEMAND FAST SALE EVERY BATCH HAPPY GOOD EFFECT BIG BATCH !
Contact me on Threema or skype to start big business!!
Hot-sale products:
NEW HOT EUTYLONE WHITE CRYSTAL!!
5cl-adba precursor (semi finished )
5cl-adba raw materials
ADBB precursor (semi finished )
ADBB raw materials
APVP powder
5fadb/4f-adb
Jwh018 / Jwh210
Eutylone crystal
Protonitazene (hydrochloride) CAS: 119276-01-6
Flubrotizolam CAS: 57801-95-3
Metonitazene CAS: 14680-51-4
Payment terms: Western Union,MoneyGram,Bitcoin or USDT.
Deliver Time: Usually 7-15days
Shipping method: FedEx, TNT, DHL,UPS etc.Our deliveries are 100% safe, fast, reliable and discreet.
Samples will be sent for your evaluation!If you are interested in, please contact me, let's talk details.
We specializes in exporting high quality Research chemical, medical intermediate, Pharmaceutical chemicals and so on. Products are exported to USA, Canada, France, Korea, Japan,Russia, Southeast Asia and other countries.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
2.
Bioenergetics is the subject of a field of
biochemistry that concerns energy flow
through living systems.
This is an active area of biological research
that includes the study of thousands of
different cellular processes such as cellular
respiration and the many other metabolic
processes that can lead to production and
utilization of energy in forms such as ATP
molecules.
Bioenergetics
3.
4. The sum total of all the chemical processes that
occurs in a living organism.
It refer to all chemical reactions that occur in living
organisms, including digestion and the transport of
substances into and between different cells.
5.
CATABOLISM – the set of metabolic pathways that
break down complex molecules into simpler ones.
ANABOLISM – the set of pathways that use energy
to build complex molecules from simpler ones.
Two broad Categories:
6. ~ is the Chemical LINK between
Catabolism & Anabolism
7.
ATP contains a chain of three phosphate
group bonded to a molecule called
ADENOSINE.
8.
Key to ATP’s ability to store energy is the three linked phosphate
groups. Each phosphate group is negatively charged, so these group
repel to one another.
The bond we form when we hydrolyze ATP is stronger than one we
break, so forming this new bond produce more energy than we
consume in breaking the original.
Hydrolyzing the bond between any two phosphate groups in ATP produces
energy.
But when we link it to two phosphate groups, we must break a strong
bond, and we make a weak bond to replace it. We put in more energy
than we get back.
Forming the bond between any two phosphate groups in ATP consumes
energy.
9.
In every living cell on Earth, from our own cells to
the smallest microorganisms, ATP is constantly
being made and broken down. We use energy of
catabolism to make ATP, and we break down ATP
to make this energy available for anabolism and
other energy-consuming process.
10. ~ involve breaking down an organic
compound and harnessing the energy that is
produced to make ATP.
12.
How our bodies break down
Carbohydrates & Fats
Break the carbon-carbon bonds. The only carbon-containing product
when most nutrients are broken down is CO2, so all of the
carbon-carbon bonds in the organic compound must be broken.
Our bodies use decarboxylation reactions to break the carbon-
carbon bonds.
Add oxygen atoms, using water as the source of the oxygen. Our
bodies use hydration reaction to add water to the organic
molecule.
Remove all of the hydrogen atoms. Our bodies use NAD+ and FAD
to remove hydrogen atoms two at a time, using the oxidation
reaction.
13.
14.
GLYCOLYSIS
~Embden-Meyerhof pathway
Glucose is the universal
fuel for our bodies.
The break down of
glucose begins with a
metabolic pathway
called glycolysis.
Primitive means of
extracting energy from
organic molecules.
Glycolysis is a sequence
of 10 reactions that
convert the six carbon
sugar glucose into two
three-carbon pyruvate
ions.
The reaction also make
two hydrogen ions, which
are absorbed by the buffer
in body fluids.
This process takes place
in the cell's cytoplasm.
15.
GLYCOLYSIS
~Embden-Meyerhof pathway
Process is Anaerobic
(without oxygen) &
convert glucose to 2
lactic acid molecules.
Example: Fermentation;
lactic & alcoholic
Aerobic (utilizing oxygen)
processing of
carbohydrates uses
pyruvate derived from
glycolysis.
Example: Citric Acid &
Oxidative
Phosphorylation
16. The net result of our
bodies obtain two
molecules of ATP and
two molecules of
NADH for every
molecule of glucose
that we break down.
18. • As glucose enters the cell, it undergoes immediate PHOSPHORYLATION to
glucose-6-phosphate – first step in Phase I.
• The phosphate comes from ATP, & the enzyme hexokinase, with the aid of
Mg2+, catalyzes the transfer. Thus, the first step in the production of energy
requires an investment of energy, which is necessary to activate the glucose
in a reaction that isn’t easy to reverse.
• In addition, the presence of the charged phosphate group makes it difficult
for this & other intermediates to diffuse out of the cell.
• The enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase then catalyzes the ISOMERIZATION
of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate. This result in a compound
with a primary alcohol group, which is easier to phosphorylate than the
hemiacetal originally present.
• Fructose-6-phosphate then reacts with another molecule of ATP to form
fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. The enzyme for this step is phosphofructokinase
& this enzyme require Mg2+ to be active. ATP inhibits this enzyme, whereas
AMP activates it. This is the major regulatory step in glycolysis.
• Aldolase enzymatically cleaves the fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose
phopshates. These triose phosphates are dihydroxyacetone phosphate &
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
• The dihydroxyacetone phosphate isomerizes to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
to complete Phase I. Triose phosphate isomerase catalyzes this
isomerization.
19.
REMEMBER:
The net result of Phase I is the formation of two molecules of
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, which cost two ATP molecules
and produces no energy.
Phosphorylation is the addition of a phosphate (PO4
3-) group to
a protein or other organic molecule (see
also: organophosphate). Phosphorylation turns many protein
enzymes on and off, thereby altering their function and activity.
Protein phosphorylation is one type of post-translational
modification.
Protein phosphorylation in particular plays a significant role in
a wide range of cellular processes. Its prominent role
in biochemistry is the subject of a very large body of research
(as of March 2012, the Medline database returns nearly 200,000
articles on the subject, largely on protein phosphorylation).
Phase I
21. • Phase II begins with simultaneous PHOSPHORYLATION & OXIDATION of
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzes this conversion.
Inorganic phosphate is the source of the phosphate. NAD+ is the coenzyme
& oxidizing reagent, NAD+ reduces NADH.
• Theres a high-energy acyl phosphate bond present in 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate. Phosphoglycerate kinase, in the presence of
MG2+, catalyzes the direct transfer of phosphate from 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate to ADP. This result the formation of ATP & 3-
phosphoglycerate. Because the formation of ATP involves direct phosphate
transfer, this process is called SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION.
• Phosphoglyceromutase then catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group
from C3-C2, thus converting 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate.
• After that, DEHYDRATION occurs to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), which
contain high-energy phosphate bond. The enzyme that catalyzes the
reaction is enolase.
• The final, irreversible step is a SECOND SUBSTRATE-LEVEL
PHOSPHORYLATION. Here, an ADP molecule receives a phospahte group
from the PEP. The enzyme pyruvate kinase is necessary for this step. This
enzyme requires not only Mg2+, but also K+. PYRUVATE is the other
PRODUCT.
22.
REMEMBER:
SUBSTRATE- LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION –
reaction that make ATP by hydrolyzing a different
high-energy molecule.
During Phase II, two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate form two molecules of pyruvate with the
formation of four molecules of ATP and two
molecules of NADH
Phase II
23. Chemical Steps Number of ATP Molecules
Produce
Activation (conversion of glucose to 1,6-frictose
diphosphate)
-2
Oxidative phosphorylation 2 (glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate >> 1,3-diphosphoglycerate) producing 2
NADH + H+ in cytosol
4
Dephosphorylation 2 (1,3-diphosphoglycerate >
pyruvate)
4
Oxidative decarboxylation 2 (pyruvate > acetyl CoA),
producing 2NADH + H+ in mitochondria
6
Oxidation of two C2 fragments in Citric Acid & oxidative
phosphorylation in common pathway, producing 12 ATP
for each C2 fragment
24
TOTAL 36
ATP Yield for Each Step in the
Metabolism of Glucose
24. - is a series of reactions that generate glucose from
non- carbohydrate sources.
- This pathway is necessary when the supply of
carbohydrate is inadequate.
- The non-carbohydrate sources include
lactate, pyruvate, some amino acids & glycerol.
- ANABOLIC PATHWAY
25.
Gluconeogenesis
Occurs mainly in the liver to make glucose in the
blood.
The liver converts most of these molecules into
pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis.
It converts 2 pyruvate ions into a molecule of
glucose. This pathway consumes energy in the form
of six molecules of ATP and two molecules of
NADH.
27.
To replenish the glycogen stored in the liver. Liver can store
enough glycogen to supply our energy needs for up to a
day. Between meals, liver is constantly breaking down
glycogen, which it releases into the blood to supply the
needs of other tissues
To eliminate lactate from the blood during heavy exercise. The
liver rebuilds lactate into glucose & return it to blood to
fuel additional muscular effort.
To maintain blood glucose levels during a prolonged fast. The
liver normally breaks down its own glycogen to make the
needed glucose, but it builds glucose from other
compounds when its glycogen stores are exhausted.
Our bodies only build glucose
only under certain conditions:
28.
Cancer cells often exhibit a glycolytic cycle up to
200 times higher than the rate of normal cells.
Known as the Warburg effect, this acceleration may
happen due to an abundance of hexokinase
enzymes, or a deficiency of oxygen from a lack of
blood flow to the site.
A similar disturbance in glucose metabolism is seen
in Alzheimer’s disease. However, this is more likely
caused by an accumulation of specific proteins that
interfere with phosphorylation.
{ REAL WORLD }
29. ~ do not require any oxygen either directly
or indirectly.
~ Lactic Acid Fermentation
~ Alcoholic Fermentation
30. ~ Is a general term for any catabolic pathway
that breakdown carbohydrates using all or
most of the reaction of glycolysis, but that
doesn’t involve any net oxidation.
31. - Yeast and other organisms convert pyruvate to
ethanol & carbon dioxide.
- This process is accompanied by the oxidation of
NADH to NAD+. The NAD+ is used in
glycolysis.
- This process yields a net generation of two ATP
molecules.
33.
The first step in alcoholic fermentation is the
DECARBOXYLATION of pyruvate to carbon
dioxide & acetaldehyde. The enzyme pyruvate
decarboxylase, along with the cofactor MG2+ & TPP
(Thiamine pyrophosphate), catalyzes this step.
The enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, along with the
coenzyme NADH, catalyzes the conversion of
acetaldehyde to ethanol.
Alcoholic Fermentation
34.
To make alcoholic beverages and to make bread and
other baked good.
Beer & sparkling wine are made by fermenting
mixtures of water & carbohydrate-containing
vegetable matter (grain & wine) in sealed containers.
Ethanol gives the beverage's their alcoholic content,
and the carbon dioxide gives them their “sparkle”.
{ REAL WORLD }
35. ~ the sequence of 11 reaction that breaks
down glucose into lactate.
37.
Active muscles obtain majority of their energy from
this pathway.
The bacteria that are responsible for spoiled milk are
also lactic acid fermenters, but they produce lactic
acid rather than lactate ions.
Lactic acid denature milk protein & gives the milk its
unpleasant flavor & aroma.
It makes two molecules of ATP, so it is an energy-
producing pathway. However it does not produce as
much energy as glycolysis, because it DOES NOT
produce NADH.
{ REAL WORLD }
41.
Mitochondrial membrane are lipid bilayers. Outer membrane
contains a number of proteins, so this membrane is permeable
to ions and small to medium sized molecules. Inner membrane
contains only few transport protein, so most ionic & polar
solute cannot cross.
Matrix contains the enzymes that breakdown fatty acids &
amino acids.
MITOCHONDRIA are responsible for most of the energy
production from carbohydrates . It is also the “energy
factories” of the cell, converting the energy of oxidation
reactions into chemical energy of ATP.
42. - Also known as Kreb Cycle or Tricarboxylic
Acid Cycle (TCA)
- Note: These processes take place in the
mitochondria, the energy factories of cell.
46.
Reaction
Number
Reaction Type Function in the Cycle
1 Special Reaction Starts the cycle by combining the acetyl group
with oxoloacetate ion
2 Dehydration followed
by Hydration
Moves the hydroxyl group of citrate to a
location where it can be oxidized
3 Oxidation &
decarboxylation
Produce a high-energy molecule (NADH) &
removes a carbon atom (in the form of CO2)
4 Oxidative
decarboxylation
Produces a high-energy molecule (NADH).
Removes a carbon atom, and make thioester,
which is a high-energy molecule
5 Hydrolysis of thioester Produces a high-energy molecule (ATP)
6 Dehydrogenation
(Oxidation)
Produce a high-energy molecule (FADH2)
7 Hydration Adds an oxygen atom to allow further
oxidation
8 Hydration Produces a high-energy molecule (NADH) &
regenerates the oxoloacetate ion
The Reaction of the Citric Acid Cycle
47.
The Krebs’ cycle is an eloquent and essential system
designed to generate large amounts of cellular energy
required for life. Disruption of the Krebs’ cycle, whether
caused by deficiencies in energy substrates, acquired or
inherited disease states, or physical stress, leads to an
inhibition of normal energy production and contributes to
a wide range of metabolic disturbances and symptoms.
The use of supplemental Krebs’ cycle acids and anti-
fatigue buffers can assist in the management of
mitochondrial energy substrates and increase cellular
energy production. Such a nutritional approach can be of
benefit to athletes, anyone who is aging, as well as those
suffering from metabolic disturbances caused by
inherited mitochondrial diseases or acquired
diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Chronic Fatigue
Syndrome (CFS).
{ REAL WORLD }
48. The production of NADH & FADH2 by the citric
acid cycle supplies the materials for the next
phase. These reduced co-enzymes transport the
electrons derived from the oxidation of pyruvate.
The final fate of these electrons is the reduction of
oxygen to water.
49.
Oxidation-reduction reaction
OXIDATION – loss of electrons
REDUCTION – gain of electrons
These processes are coupled in that the electrons lost
must equal the electrons gained.
Reduction potential – indicates how easily a
molecule undergoes oxidation or reduction.
Electron Transport System
51.
As the electron transport chain moves the hydrogen ions
from the matrix into intermembrane space, the
concentration of H+ in the intermembrane space become
larger than the concentration of H+ in the matrix.
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT – contain potential
energy, because the solute has a natural tendency to flow
from the side with the higher concentration to the side
with lower.
CHARGE GRADIENT – the solutions in either side of the
membrane have different electrical charge.
Electron transport chain produces both types of gradients
across the inner membrane, using them to store energy
that was produced.
2 types of Gradient across the
inner mitochondrial membrane
52.
Electron transport chain uses different enzymes to remove
electrons from NADH & FADH2, and it obtains different
amounts of energy from each reaction.
Electron transport chain pushes 10 H+ ions through the
membrane when it oxidizes NADH, but it only moves 6 H+
ions through membrane when it oxidizes FADH2.
53.
ATP Synthase harnesses the potential energy of the
concentration and charge gradients by allowing hydrogen ions
to move back through the inner membrane into the matrix.
This movement of hydrogen ions releases the energy from the
gradient, and ATP synthase uses this energy to convert ADP
and phosphate into ATP. You can think ATP synthase as a
machine that uses the movement of hydrogen ions to supply
the energy to make ATP.
55.
the sequence of reaction from the oxidation of
NADH and FADH2 to the formation of ATP.
CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS –current proposed
mechanism for oxidative phosphorylation. This
hypothesis assume that the hydrogen ion gradient is
significant factor promoting the conversion of ADP
to ATP.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
56. - Production of the fatty acids is necessary to form
the membrane lipids. The main reason for fatty
acid synthesis is to convert excess dietary
carbohydrate to fats for storage.
60.
Reaction
Number
Reaction Type Function in the Cycle
1 Oxidation With the catalyst being acyl-CoA dehydrogenase.
During this step, coenzyme FAD accepts two
hydrogen atoms.
2 Hydration The trans-alkene undergoes hydration to form a
secondary alcohol. The catalyst is the enzyme enoyl-
CoA hydratase. Add oxygen to the molecule and to
allow further oxidation
3 Oxidation of
Alcohol group
Secondary alcohol undergoes oxidation to form
ketone. The oxidizing agent is NAD+. The re-oxidation
of NADH to NAD+ via the electron transport chain
produces 2 molecules of ATP. The enzyme is β-
hydroxy-acyl-CoA dehydrogenase.
4 Decarboxylation Involves clevage of β-ketoacyl-CoA with a molecule of
CoA. This produces acetyl-CoA & a fatty acyl CoA.
Breaking of carbon-carbon bond to the right of the
ketone group, and add coenzyme A. The enzyme β-
kethothiolase.
The Reaction of the β-oxidation Cycle
61.
The result of one cycle of beta oxidation are a
molecule of NADH, a molecule of FADH2, a
molecule of acetyl-CoA, & a new (shorter) fatty acyl-
CoA.
The key to beta oxidation is that we can use the new
fatty acyl-CoA as the starting material for another cycle of
beta oxidation. If we repeat the cycle enough times, we
will break down the entire fatty acid into acetyl-CoA.
β-oxidation Cycle
62. - AMINO ACIDS; Are a particularly important
energy source during a fast, since they can be
converted into glucose for the brain, while fatty
acid cannot.
- Amino acids contain nitrogen
- When our bodies breakdown amino acids, we
convert virtually all of the nitrogen atoms into
ammonium ions.
64.
TRANSAMINATION REACTION – amino
group is simply moved to different organic
molecule.
OXIDATIVE DEAMINATION – converts
the amino group into an ammonium ion.
REMEMBER!
66.
All amino acids other than threonine, proline &
lysine undergo this process.
The amino group transfers to the keto carbon of α-
ketoglutarate, oxolatoacetate or pyruvate to form
glutamate, aspartate or alanine respectively.
Transamination Reaction
67.
It converts glutamate to α-ketoglutarate.
Occurs primarily in liver, releases ammonium ion.
Occur in animal in which inorganic nitrogen is
converted into organic nitrogen.
Oxidative Deamination Reaction
69.
Ammonium ions are very toxic, so our bodies must
not allow them to reach significant concentrations in
our body fluids.
We can recycle ammonium ions to supply the
nitrogen for building new amino acids,but we
normally make more ammonium ions than we can
use.
Therefore, we must remove NH4+ ions by excreting
them.
Urea Cycle
71.
Urea cycle take place in the liver, the organ that is
generally responsible for dealing with toxic
substances.
The liver absorbs ammonium ions from the
blood, converts them into urea, & releases the urea
into the bloodstream, which carries it to the kidney
for disposal.
Our bodies must break down 4 molecules of ATP for
every molecule of urea we make. Since we make
urea from 2 ammonium ions, the urea cycle consumes 2
molecules of ATP to dispose 1 ammonium ion.
Urea Cycle
72.
Although carbohydrates are the most readily
available energy source, amino acids can serve as
energy sources in some situations.
This is important for carnivore (like humans), who
live on a high-protein diet.
The utilization of amino acids as energy sources is
also important during HYPOGLYCEMIA, FASTING
& STARVATION.
{ REAL WORLD }
74.
Production and management of sustainable biological
energy resources is of vital concern for everyone.
Disruptions in the normal production of mitochondrial
energy can contribute to a wide range of metabolic
disturbances and symptoms, including fatigue, immune
system dysfunction, dementia, depression, behavioral
disturbances, attention deficiency, muscle weakness
and pain, angina, heart disease, diabetes, skin rashes,
and hair loss. These symptoms of metabolic impairment
are also present in persons suffering from acquired
diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease and Chronic
Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), and in those with inherited
mitochondrial diseases, such as mitochondrial
myopathy.
{ REAL WORLD }
75.
A deficiency in one or more Krebs’ cycle
intermediates and an inhibition of normal energy
production may cause a wide range of metabolic
disturbances and symptoms. A deficiency of malic
acid and fumaric acid is linked to chronic fatigue and
psoriasis. Disturbances in mitochondrial energy
production contribute to a variety of neurological
and physical problems. Impaired oxidative and
energy metabolism are indicators of Alzheimer’s
disease. These disturbances of energy production can
create abnormal spilling of Krebs’ cycle byproducts
into the urine.
{ REAL WORLD }
76.
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS) represents a
condition of debilitating fatigue. Some neurological
symptoms of CFS are poor attention, memory loss,
lack of concentration and depression. An underlying
cause of CFS may be an impairment in the
production of mitochondrial adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), the fundamental cellular energy source.
Studies have found that CFS patients have elevated
blood levels of lactate, indicating suboptimal aerobic
ATP production that can lead to fatigue and muscle
aches.
{ REAL WORLD }