Basics of Cladistic Analysis Workshop
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Phenetic vs. Phylogentic analyses, Phenegram vs. Cladogram, Constructing a Phylogenetic tree, Principle of Parsimony. Homology vs. Homoplasy, Monophylly, Cladogram Description and Interpretation, Phylogenetic Classification, Software of Phenetic Analysis, Software of Cladistic Analysis Based on Morphological characters, Software of Cladistic Analysis Based on Molecular characters.
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Phenetic Vs. Phylogenetics,Parsimony, Homology, evolution, Monophyletic groups, cladogram construction
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1. Cladistics is a method of classifying organisms based on shared derived characteristics and evolutionary relationships rather than physical similarity. It uses characteristics inherited from common ancestors to construct branching cladograms depicting evolutionary descent.
2. Determining whether a characteristic is ancestral or derived is important in cladistics. Ancestral characteristics predate the last common ancestor, while derived traits evolved more recently. Outgroup comparison is used to determine polarity.
3. A cladogram depicts nested clades of organisms sharing synapomorphies not found in outgroups. It shows the pattern of common ancestry and branching of life over time based on inheritance of characteristics from ancestors.
Systematics Lecture: Phenetics
Phenetics, also known as numerical taxonomy, uses multivariate statistical analysis to cluster operational taxonomic units (OTUs) based on overall resemblance between characters. It involves 1) choosing taxa and discovering measurable characters, 2) scoring characters for OTUs, 3) calculating pairwise measures of overall resemblance between OTUs to generate a distance matrix, 4) clustering OTUs based on overall resemblance using distance coefficients, and 5) generating a dendrogram to visually represent clustering of OTUs. Common coefficients used to calculate overall resemblance are the simple matching coefficient and Jaccard coefficient.
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This PPT explores the different attributes related to numerical taxonomy or Taxi- metrics in the domain of plant taxonomy along with different fundamental principles.
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This document discusses different species concepts in biology. It begins by defining a species as a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. It then discusses four main species concepts:
1. The typological/essentialist concept which views each species as fixed types with essential characteristics.
2. The nominalistic concept which sees species as human constructs with no real existence.
3. The biological species concept which defines a species as groups that can interbreed but are reproductively isolated from other groups.
4. The evolutionary species concept which views species as segments of branching lineages.
It provides details on each concept and their criticisms, focusing most on the biological species concept as the most widely
Species concept
Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. The biological species concept has been prevalent in the evolutionary literature for the last several decades and is emphasized in many college-level biology courses. It is probably the species concept most familiar to biologists in diverse fields, such as conservation biology, forestry, fisheries, and wildlife management. Species defined by the biological species concept have also been championed as units of conservation. The species concept for most phycologists is based on the morphological characters and hence the term ‘species’ means morphospecies. On the other hand, for evolutionary biologists, the term means biological species that can be defined as a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated from others) that occupy a specific niche in Nature.
Cladistics
- Cladistics is a method of classifying organisms based on their evolutionary relationships and phylogenetic branching rather than physical similarities. It groups organisms into clades of monophyletic groups that share a common ancestor.
- Key terms include synapomorphy (shared derived trait), plesiomorphy (ancestral trait), apomorphy (derived trait), monophyletic/polyphyletic/paraphyletic taxa.
- Cladograms visually depict these evolutionary relationships through branching diagrams showing how groups split from common ancestors over time. They do not show passage of time or degree of change.
Classification
This document discusses taxonomy and classification systems. It explains that taxonomy involves classifying organisms into a hierarchical system based on their biological relationships. The three main processes are classification, identification, and nomenclature. Classification assigns organisms to categories, identification recognizes organisms based on traits, and nomenclature names organisms according to code rules. The document then reviews different classification systems proposed over time, including Linnaean taxonomy, evolutionary systematics using phylogenetic trees, phenetic systematics based only on observable traits, and cladistic systematics grouping organisms based on shared derived characteristics. It discusses debates around species concepts and notes the goal of taxonomy is to universally classify organisms in a biologically meaningful way.
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2. Determining whether a characteristic is ancestral or derived is important in cladistics. Ancestral characteristics predate the last common ancestor, while derived traits evolved more recently. Outgroup comparison is used to determine polarity.
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1. The typological/essentialist concept which views each species as fixed types with essential characteristics.
2. The nominalistic concept which sees species as human constructs with no real existence.
3. The biological species concept which defines a species as groups that can interbreed but are reproductively isolated from other groups.
4. The evolutionary species concept which views species as segments of branching lineages.
It provides details on each concept and their criticisms, focusing most on the biological species concept as the most widely
Species concept
Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. The biological species concept has been prevalent in the evolutionary literature for the last several decades and is emphasized in many college-level biology courses. It is probably the species concept most familiar to biologists in diverse fields, such as conservation biology, forestry, fisheries, and wildlife management. Species defined by the biological species concept have also been championed as units of conservation. The species concept for most phycologists is based on the morphological characters and hence the term ‘species’ means morphospecies. On the other hand, for evolutionary biologists, the term means biological species that can be defined as a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated from others) that occupy a specific niche in Nature.
Cladistics
- Cladistics is a method of classifying organisms based on their evolutionary relationships and phylogenetic branching rather than physical similarities. It groups organisms into clades of monophyletic groups that share a common ancestor.
- Key terms include synapomorphy (shared derived trait), plesiomorphy (ancestral trait), apomorphy (derived trait), monophyletic/polyphyletic/paraphyletic taxa.
- Cladograms visually depict these evolutionary relationships through branching diagrams showing how groups split from common ancestors over time. They do not show passage of time or degree of change.
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This document discusses taxonomy and classification systems. It explains that taxonomy involves classifying organisms into a hierarchical system based on their biological relationships. The three main processes are classification, identification, and nomenclature. Classification assigns organisms to categories, identification recognizes organisms based on traits, and nomenclature names organisms according to code rules. The document then reviews different classification systems proposed over time, including Linnaean taxonomy, evolutionary systematics using phylogenetic trees, phenetic systematics based only on observable traits, and cladistic systematics grouping organisms based on shared derived characteristics. It discusses debates around species concepts and notes the goal of taxonomy is to universally classify organisms in a biologically meaningful way.
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This document discusses the five main types of taxonomic characters used to classify organisms: morphological, physiological, ecological, ethological, and geographical. It provides examples of characters under each type, such as external features, anatomy, genetics, metabolism, behavior, habitat preferences, and geographic distributions. The document emphasizes that taxonomic characters should be evaluated together to properly identify and relate different species.
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Systematics is the study of the historical relationships between biological organisms and the understanding of biodiversity. It aims to trace phylogeny and classify taxa in an evolutionary context. Systematics encompasses fields like taxonomy, classification, nomenclature, biogeography, and phylogenetics. It determines the unique and shared properties of species and higher taxa, classifies life to make diversity accessible to other disciplines, and has contributed insights in areas like epidemiology, agriculture, and conservation through accurate identification and classification of organisms.
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This document provides an overview of key concepts in biological systematics, taxonomy, and phylogeny. It discusses how systematics involves classifying organisms based on their evolutionary relationships and representing these relationships visually with phylogenetic trees. Taxonomy is the naming and classification of organisms according to a standardized hierarchical system, from kingdom to species. Phylogenetics studies evolutionary histories and relationships between organisms through phylogenetic analysis methods that evaluate heritable traits under an evolutionary model to produce phylogenetic trees depicting these relationships.
Lect01 Species and species concept
1. Species are the fundamental units of biodiversity and are considered natural individuals, not classes.
2. There are many concepts of what constitutes a species, and defining and recognizing species is contentious due to their dynamic evolutionary nature.
3. Species are important units of study as they represent independently evolving lineages and are the primary units of evolution, adaptation, and other biological processes.
TAXONOMICAL CATEGORIES
This document discusses taxonomy, systematics, and taxonomic categories. It defines taxonomy as the classification of organisms based on observable characteristics into hierarchical taxa. Systematics is the study of relationships between organisms. There are defined taxonomic categories including species, genus, family, order, class, division/phylum, and kingdom. Each category represents a rank in the taxonomic hierarchy and groups organisms with decreasingly similar characteristics as the category level increases. The categories are used to systematically classify all known organisms.
Principles of taxonomy
The document discusses taxonomy and systematics. It defines taxonomy as the science of classifying organisms and systematics as including taxonomy along with theoretical and practical aspects of evolution. The key points are:
1. Linnaeus developed the binomial nomenclature system which provides a standardized way to name species.
2. Taxonomy involves identifying and classifying organisms according to evolutionary relationships. This includes describing new species, assigning names, and grouping taxa into hierarchical ranks.
3. Systematics builds on taxonomy by also examining evolutionary relationships and genetics to reflect monophyletic groups based on common ancestry.
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Species concepts 4
The document discusses several species concepts:
- The typological concept views species as fixed types, ignoring variation.
- The biological concept defines species as groups of interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from others.
- The nominalistic concept views species as human constructs rather than natural categories.
It also notes difficulties in applying the biological concept, such as asexual reproduction, similar but isolated species, and ring species where isolation breaks down.
Systematics
The document discusses different perspectives on classifying species and defining what a species is. It describes five main species concepts used in science: morphological, biological, evolutionary, phylogenetic, and ecological. The morphological concept views each species as having an essential set of characteristics, while the biological concept defines species based on reproductive isolation. Evolutionary and phylogenetic concepts consider species lineages and ancestry. Realism, nominalism, whether species are individuals or classes, and other philosophical issues related to defining species are also covered.
Taxonomic hierarchy
This document discusses the taxonomic hierarchy used for classifying organisms, specifically angiosperms. It explains that taxonomic hierarchy arranges organisms into successive levels from kingdom down to species. The main levels are kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, and species. Major categories include division, class, and order, while minor categories are genus and species. The hierarchy allows grouping of organisms based on their diversity and helps classify plants into appropriate groups.
Species concept
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
Species Concepts And Speciation
This document discusses different concepts of what defines a biological species, including historical, modern, and problematic concepts. It outlines the biological species concept, which defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. However, it notes there are issues with this concept, as reproductive isolation evolves gradually and does not always correspond with morphological or genetic differences between forms. Other concepts discussed include the evolutionary species concept and problems identifying species without evidence of interbreeding.
Importance and Applications of Systematics evolution
1. Systematics is the study of the diversity and relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. It involves classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships through tools like cladograms and phylogenetic trees.
2. Taxonomy is the practice of naming and grouping organisms, which is a key part of systematics. However, systematics also examines broader aspects of evolution through fields like genetics and molecular biology.
3. Systematics has many important applications, including aiding agriculture and forestry by identifying pests, enabling biological control of pests by introducing natural predators, and assisting in public health by identifying disease vectors.
Systematics
Classical and molecular taxonomic parameters, species concept, systematic gradation of animals, nomenclature, modern scheme of animal classification into sub-Kingdom, division, section, phyla and minor phyla
Cladistic
Cladistics is a biological classification system that groups organisms based on shared traits and evolutionary relationships. It aims to trace ancestry back to common ancestors by constructing phylogenetic trees based on morphological and molecular data. Key terms in cladistics include plesiomorphy (ancestral traits), apomorphy (derived traits that define groups), and homoplasy (traits that evolved separately in different groups). Together, analysis of character states helps determine evolutionary relationships between taxa.
Species concept
Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
Evolution of theory of nomenclature
This document discusses the evolution of the theory of biological nomenclature. It begins by defining nomenclature and explaining how Carl Linnaeus established the system of binomial nomenclature in 1758. This system uses a two-part Latin name for each organism, with the first part indicating the genus and the second indicating the species. The document outlines the basic rules of binomial nomenclature and three essential requisites: uniqueness, universality, and stability. It also discusses how the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature codifies and regulates the rules, and how it has evolved over the last 150 years through various international bodies and congresses.
Aims & fundamental components of taxonomy
This document discusses the aims and fundamental components of taxonomy. It outlines three main aims of modern taxonomy: 1) to provide a method for identification and communication, 2) to provide a classification that expresses natural relationships, and 3) to detect evolution. It also describes the four overlapping phases in classifying the universe of flora: pioneer, consolidation, biosystematics, and encyclopedic. The fundamental components of taxonomy are identified as identification, description, nomenclature, and classification. Identification involves recognizing unknown specimens, description involves listing taxonomic characters, nomenclature deals with determining correct names, and classification arranges organisms into hierarchical groups.
Mechanisms of-speciation
This document summarizes mechanisms of speciation, including allopatric and sympatric speciation. Allopatric speciation occurs when a population splits into two geographically isolated populations, which then evolve independently. Examples include species found on different Galapagos Islands. Sympatric speciation refers to the formation of new species from a single ancestral species occupying the same geographic location, often involving different host plant dependencies. The best example is cichlid fish in African Rift Valley lakes. Budding speciation is proposed as a form of sympatric speciation where small groups become progressively isolated through inbreeding.
convergent evolutionwith out common ancestor.pptx
This document discusses key concepts for constructing phylogenetic trees to represent evolutionary relationships among taxa. It defines important terms like analogy, homology, homoplasy, synapomorphy and autapomorphy. Character polarity is determined by outgroup comparison to identify ancestral versus derived character states. Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses that are evaluated based on parsimony and likelihood, favoring trees that best fit morphological, molecular and fossil data with fewer evolutionary changes. Cladistic analysis involves coding character states, grouping taxa by shared derived characters, resolving conflicts to determine relationships between taxa.
Topic 7 Phylogeny.ppt
Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms and how they are related through common ancestry. Phylogenetic trees graphically represent hypotheses of ancestor-descendent relationships. They can be constructed using morphological, physiological, or molecular data to identify shared derived character states that cluster organisms into monophyletic groups. Parsimony seeks to minimize evolutionary changes and identify the most parsimonious tree. Phylogenies are useful for studying questions about evolution, biogeography, and coevolution.
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different kinds of taxonomic characters and its function
This document discusses the five main types of taxonomic characters used to classify organisms: morphological, physiological, ecological, ethological, and geographical. It provides examples of characters under each type, such as external features, anatomy, genetics, metabolism, behavior, habitat preferences, and geographic distributions. The document emphasizes that taxonomic characters should be evaluated together to properly identify and relate different species.
What is Systematics
Systematics is the study of the historical relationships between biological organisms and the understanding of biodiversity. It aims to trace phylogeny and classify taxa in an evolutionary context. Systematics encompasses fields like taxonomy, classification, nomenclature, biogeography, and phylogenetics. It determines the unique and shared properties of species and higher taxa, classifies life to make diversity accessible to other disciplines, and has contributed insights in areas like epidemiology, agriculture, and conservation through accurate identification and classification of organisms.
Basic concepts in systamatics,taxonomy and phylogenetic tree
This document provides an overview of key concepts in biological systematics, taxonomy, and phylogeny. It discusses how systematics involves classifying organisms based on their evolutionary relationships and representing these relationships visually with phylogenetic trees. Taxonomy is the naming and classification of organisms according to a standardized hierarchical system, from kingdom to species. Phylogenetics studies evolutionary histories and relationships between organisms through phylogenetic analysis methods that evaluate heritable traits under an evolutionary model to produce phylogenetic trees depicting these relationships.
Lect01 Species and species concept
1. Species are the fundamental units of biodiversity and are considered natural individuals, not classes.
2. There are many concepts of what constitutes a species, and defining and recognizing species is contentious due to their dynamic evolutionary nature.
3. Species are important units of study as they represent independently evolving lineages and are the primary units of evolution, adaptation, and other biological processes.
TAXONOMICAL CATEGORIES
This document discusses taxonomy, systematics, and taxonomic categories. It defines taxonomy as the classification of organisms based on observable characteristics into hierarchical taxa. Systematics is the study of relationships between organisms. There are defined taxonomic categories including species, genus, family, order, class, division/phylum, and kingdom. Each category represents a rank in the taxonomic hierarchy and groups organisms with decreasingly similar characteristics as the category level increases. The categories are used to systematically classify all known organisms.
Principles of taxonomy
The document discusses taxonomy and systematics. It defines taxonomy as the science of classifying organisms and systematics as including taxonomy along with theoretical and practical aspects of evolution. The key points are:
1. Linnaeus developed the binomial nomenclature system which provides a standardized way to name species.
2. Taxonomy involves identifying and classifying organisms according to evolutionary relationships. This includes describing new species, assigning names, and grouping taxa into hierarchical ranks.
3. Systematics builds on taxonomy by also examining evolutionary relationships and genetics to reflect monophyletic groups based on common ancestry.
3 schools of systematics
SystematicsInferring Relationships
Three Schools of Systematics
•Phenetics
•Cladistics
•Evolutionary Classification
Cladistics - Systematics
This document discusses cladistics, a method of classifying organisms based on shared derived characteristics. Cladistics groups organisms into clades, which represent the most recent common ancestor of a group and all its descendants. A cladogram depicts these evolutionary relationships through a branching diagram. Key concepts include synapomorphies (shared derived traits), homology, homoplasy, and parsimony. Cladistics aims to determine ancestral character states and place taxa based on requiring the fewest evolutionary changes. This phylogenetic approach aims to represent natural evolutionary relationships between organisms.
Species concepts 4
The document discusses several species concepts:
- The typological concept views species as fixed types, ignoring variation.
- The biological concept defines species as groups of interbreeding populations reproductively isolated from others.
- The nominalistic concept views species as human constructs rather than natural categories.
It also notes difficulties in applying the biological concept, such as asexual reproduction, similar but isolated species, and ring species where isolation breaks down.
Systematics
The document discusses different perspectives on classifying species and defining what a species is. It describes five main species concepts used in science: morphological, biological, evolutionary, phylogenetic, and ecological. The morphological concept views each species as having an essential set of characteristics, while the biological concept defines species based on reproductive isolation. Evolutionary and phylogenetic concepts consider species lineages and ancestry. Realism, nominalism, whether species are individuals or classes, and other philosophical issues related to defining species are also covered.
Taxonomic hierarchy
This document discusses the taxonomic hierarchy used for classifying organisms, specifically angiosperms. It explains that taxonomic hierarchy arranges organisms into successive levels from kingdom down to species. The main levels are kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, and species. Major categories include division, class, and order, while minor categories are genus and species. The hierarchy allows grouping of organisms based on their diversity and helps classify plants into appropriate groups.
Species concept
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
Species Concepts And Speciation
This document discusses different concepts of what defines a biological species, including historical, modern, and problematic concepts. It outlines the biological species concept, which defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. However, it notes there are issues with this concept, as reproductive isolation evolves gradually and does not always correspond with morphological or genetic differences between forms. Other concepts discussed include the evolutionary species concept and problems identifying species without evidence of interbreeding.
Importance and Applications of Systematics evolution
1. Systematics is the study of the diversity and relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. It involves classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships through tools like cladograms and phylogenetic trees.
2. Taxonomy is the practice of naming and grouping organisms, which is a key part of systematics. However, systematics also examines broader aspects of evolution through fields like genetics and molecular biology.
3. Systematics has many important applications, including aiding agriculture and forestry by identifying pests, enabling biological control of pests by introducing natural predators, and assisting in public health by identifying disease vectors.
Systematics
Classical and molecular taxonomic parameters, species concept, systematic gradation of animals, nomenclature, modern scheme of animal classification into sub-Kingdom, division, section, phyla and minor phyla
Cladistic
Cladistics is a biological classification system that groups organisms based on shared traits and evolutionary relationships. It aims to trace ancestry back to common ancestors by constructing phylogenetic trees based on morphological and molecular data. Key terms in cladistics include plesiomorphy (ancestral traits), apomorphy (derived traits that define groups), and homoplasy (traits that evolved separately in different groups). Together, analysis of character states helps determine evolutionary relationships between taxa.
Species concept
Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
Evolution of theory of nomenclature
This document discusses the evolution of the theory of biological nomenclature. It begins by defining nomenclature and explaining how Carl Linnaeus established the system of binomial nomenclature in 1758. This system uses a two-part Latin name for each organism, with the first part indicating the genus and the second indicating the species. The document outlines the basic rules of binomial nomenclature and three essential requisites: uniqueness, universality, and stability. It also discusses how the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature codifies and regulates the rules, and how it has evolved over the last 150 years through various international bodies and congresses.
Aims & fundamental components of taxonomy
This document discusses the aims and fundamental components of taxonomy. It outlines three main aims of modern taxonomy: 1) to provide a method for identification and communication, 2) to provide a classification that expresses natural relationships, and 3) to detect evolution. It also describes the four overlapping phases in classifying the universe of flora: pioneer, consolidation, biosystematics, and encyclopedic. The fundamental components of taxonomy are identified as identification, description, nomenclature, and classification. Identification involves recognizing unknown specimens, description involves listing taxonomic characters, nomenclature deals with determining correct names, and classification arranges organisms into hierarchical groups.
Mechanisms of-speciation
This document summarizes mechanisms of speciation, including allopatric and sympatric speciation. Allopatric speciation occurs when a population splits into two geographically isolated populations, which then evolve independently. Examples include species found on different Galapagos Islands. Sympatric speciation refers to the formation of new species from a single ancestral species occupying the same geographic location, often involving different host plant dependencies. The best example is cichlid fish in African Rift Valley lakes. Budding speciation is proposed as a form of sympatric speciation where small groups become progressively isolated through inbreeding.
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This document discusses key concepts for constructing phylogenetic trees to represent evolutionary relationships among taxa. It defines important terms like analogy, homology, homoplasy, synapomorphy and autapomorphy. Character polarity is determined by outgroup comparison to identify ancestral versus derived character states. Phylogenetic trees are hypotheses that are evaluated based on parsimony and likelihood, favoring trees that best fit morphological, molecular and fossil data with fewer evolutionary changes. Cladistic analysis involves coding character states, grouping taxa by shared derived characters, resolving conflicts to determine relationships between taxa.
Topic 7 Phylogeny.ppt
Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships between organisms and how they are related through common ancestry. Phylogenetic trees graphically represent hypotheses of ancestor-descendent relationships. They can be constructed using morphological, physiological, or molecular data to identify shared derived character states that cluster organisms into monophyletic groups. Parsimony seeks to minimize evolutionary changes and identify the most parsimonious tree. Phylogenies are useful for studying questions about evolution, biogeography, and coevolution.
Evolutionary biology
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This document discusses the differences between phenetic and phylogenetic systems of classification. Phenetic classification groups organisms based only on overall similarity of observable traits, regardless of evolutionary relationships. Phylogenetic classification groups organisms based on their inferred evolutionary histories and relationships. Key differences are that phenetic looks only at character states while phylogenetic considers character evolution, and phenetic produces phenograms while phylogenetic aims to depict genetic and temporal relationships in a phylogenetic system of classification. The document provides examples of cladistic characters used in phylogenetic classification and some challenges, like convergent evolution and lack of fossils.
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The document provides an overview of taxonomy and phylogeny. It discusses Linnaeus' classification system, evolutionary taxonomy, cladistics, cladograms, homologous and derived characters, and differences between monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic groups. Key points covered include that cladistics requires all groups to be monophyletic while evolutionary taxonomy sometimes allows paraphyletic groups, and cladograms illustrate the nested hierarchy of clades defined by shared derived characters.
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This document provides an overview of biological classification systems and taxonomy. It defines key terms like taxonomy, phylogeny, cladistics, and discusses how organisms are organized into a taxonomic hierarchy from domain to species. Cladograms are introduced as a way to visually represent evolutionary relationships between species and identify monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic groups. The document also discusses how scientists use biological data and characteristics to reconstruct phylogenies and evolutionary trees.
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Arabian regional subzone, Nubo-Sindian local centre of endemism, Somali-Masai regional centre of endemism, Afromontane archipelago-like regional centre of endemism.
Plant life forms
Phanerophytes, Chamaephytes, Hemicryptophytes, Geophytes, Helophytes, Hydrophytes, Therophytes, Parasites, Epiphytes and Succulents.
Key to some families of ksa flora
This document provides a key to identifying some families of flora found in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It aims to help with classifying and naming plant species native to KSA by grouping them according to their shared characteristics. The key separates plants into taxonomic families to aid in understanding their biological relationships and evolutionary history.
Structure of the flower
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How to construct a key
This document provides instructions for constructing and using dichotomous keys to identify unknown objects. It explains that dichotomous keys involve successive choices between two statements to identify an object. The document then provides an example dichotomous key to identify five plant genera - Clematis, Anemone, Ranunculus, Aquilegia, and Delphenium - based on characteristics of their fruits, flowers, sepals, and involucres. It concludes by listing best practices for constructing accurate and reliable dichotomous keys and cautions that keys should be checked against descriptions to verify identifications.
03 desert biome
Deserts occur between 15-35 degrees north and south latitude where evaporation exceeds rainfall. The soil is usually sandy or rocky with shallow drainage and no subsurface water. Vegetation consists mainly of shrubs and small trees with leaves adapted to retain water. Saudi Arabia covers over 2 million square kilometers of land in the Arabian Peninsula, containing a variety of desert habitats like the Great Nafud in the north with red sands and the Rub al-Khali or Empty Quarter in the south known for its extreme climate.
02 Historical intro
A.H. Dinawari in the 9th century wrote one of the earliest and most comprehensive works on Arab agriculture and ethnobotany called "Kitab al Nabat". Over subsequent centuries, several Muslim travelers and collectors studied and wrote about Arabian plants, including Istakhri and Idrisi in the 10th-12th centuries. The first serious modern study was by Peter Forsskal in the 18th century who collected plants in Yemen and the Jizan region. Major collections and descriptions were subsequently made by others visiting Arabia through the 19th century. In the early 20th century, E. Blatter compiled these works into the first detailed checklist of Arabian flora. Beginning in the
Earth vegetation
The document outlines the grading breakdown for a class which includes two exams worth 15% each, a lab final worth 20%, a lab project and presentation worth 10%, and a final exam worth 40%. It then discusses the definition and usage of the term "flora" to describe indigenous plant life in a geographic region or time period. Finally, it lists two scientists' classifications of floral zones - Willis categorized them by climate and latitude while Engler grouped them into five floral kingdoms.
Dicta of Evolution
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- George Bentham and Joseph Hooker, who recognized over 97,000 species in their "Genera Plantarum".
- Various modern systems developed in the 20th century, including those proposed by Bessey, Cronquist
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- 6. The method that groups organisms that share derived characters is called cladistics or phylogenetic systematics
- 9. The first step (Tree polarity) •Determine which character states are primitive and which are derived. • Plesiomorphic character (Prim itive), • Apomorphic character (Derived)
- 10. If a taxon that is not a member of the group of organisms being classified has a character state that is the same as some of the organisms in the group, then that character state can be considered to be plesiomorphic. The outside taxon is called the outgroup and the organisms being classified are the ingroup.
- 12. 1. Any hypothesis that requires fewer assumptions is a more defensible hypothesis.
- 16. Exercise 1
- 17. The information in character 1 unites taxa A, B, and C because they share the apomorphic state.
- 18. Character 2 - the derived state is found only in taxon B. It is an autapomorphy of that taxon and provides no information about the relationships among the taxa
- 19. Character 3 - the derived state is an autapomorphy for taxon C
- 20. Character 4 - the derived state is a synapomorphy that unites taxa B and C
- 21. Character 5 - the derived state is an autapomorphy for taxon A
- 22. Construct a cladogram of the provided data matrix Five min.
- 23. Exercise 2
- 29. One of the most important uses of cladograms is as a basis for classification. A cladogram may be used to classify taxa phylogenetically.
- 65. Create a data matrix
- 68. Name your taxa
- 76. Enter character states in the form of (0/1)
- 79. Save your data matrix
- 87. Edite your tree
- 102. Save your tree
- 106. Autapomorphic character Synapomorphic character Sister taxa Homoplasious character