Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
One major challenge is the time consumed by the interplay between the taxonomist and the publisher in preparing taxonomic data and going to print. Breaking this bottleneck requires seamless integration between compilation of the descriptive taxonomic data and the publication upon which the data are based
Contribution to Systematic biology. KUSTKashif Obaid
Its all about general taxonomic characters and about the contribution to systematic biology...
Be ready dear KUSTIANS....
follow me and comment below in comment box to encourage me. thanks!
Organisms are classified into a hierarchical classification that groups closely related individuals.
The species is the basic biological unit around which classifications are based.
One major challenge is the time consumed by the interplay between the taxonomist and the publisher in preparing taxonomic data and going to print. Breaking this bottleneck requires seamless integration between compilation of the descriptive taxonomic data and the publication upon which the data are based
Contribution to Systematic biology. KUSTKashif Obaid
Its all about general taxonomic characters and about the contribution to systematic biology...
Be ready dear KUSTIANS....
follow me and comment below in comment box to encourage me. thanks!
• The method of classifying organisms into monophyletic group of a common ancestor based on shared apomorphic characters is called cladistics.
• Cladistics is now the most commonly used and accepted method for creating phylogenetic system of classifications.
Cladistics produces a hypothesis about the relationship of organisms to predict the morphological characteristics of organism.
1.Definition and basic concepts of Biosystematics, , Historical perspectives of Biosystematics and Taxonomy, Stages of taxonomic procedures-alpha taxonomy, Beta taxonomy and Gamma taxonomy,
Neo taxonomy.
Classical and molecular taxonomic parameters, species concept, systematic gradation of animals, nomenclature, modern scheme of animal classification into sub-Kingdom, division, section, phyla and minor phyla
• The method of classifying organisms into monophyletic group of a common ancestor based on shared apomorphic characters is called cladistics.
• Cladistics is now the most commonly used and accepted method for creating phylogenetic system of classifications.
Cladistics produces a hypothesis about the relationship of organisms to predict the morphological characteristics of organism.
1.Definition and basic concepts of Biosystematics, , Historical perspectives of Biosystematics and Taxonomy, Stages of taxonomic procedures-alpha taxonomy, Beta taxonomy and Gamma taxonomy,
Neo taxonomy.
Classical and molecular taxonomic parameters, species concept, systematic gradation of animals, nomenclature, modern scheme of animal classification into sub-Kingdom, division, section, phyla and minor phyla
The evolutionary development or history of a species or of a taxonomic group of organisms (The phylogeny of a group of taxa (singular: taxon) (species, etc.) is its evolutionary history)
regeneration
Proliferative Capacities of Tissues
Stem Cells
REPAIR BY CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Angiogenesis
Migration of Fibroblasts and ECM Deposition (Scar Formation)
PATHOLOGIC ASPECTS OF REPAIR
What is wound healing?
Classification of Wounds
Classification of Wounds Closure
Risk Factors for Surgical Wound Infections
Antibiotic Use
Hypertrophic Scars and Keloids
25.1Digestion and Absorption of Lipids
25.2Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization
25.3 Glycerol Metabolism
25.4 Oxidation of Fatty Acids
25.5 ATP Production from Fatty Acid Oxidation
25.6 Ketone Bodies
25.7 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids: Lipogenesis
25.8 Relationship Between Lipogenesis and Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates
25.9 Fate of Fatty-Acid Generated Acetyl CoA
25.10 Relationships Between Lipid and Carbohydrate Metabolism
25.11B Vitamins and Lipid Metabolism
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
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Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2. Three Schools of Systematics
• Phenetics
• Cladistics
• Evolutionary Classification
3. Phenetic analysis
• Phenetics also known as taximetrics, is an attempt to classify
organisms based on overall similarity, usually
in morphology or other observable traits, regardless of their
phylogeny or evolutionary relation.
• A numerical taxonomy which is concerned with the use of
numerical methods for taxonomic classification. Many people
contributed to the development of phenetics, but the most
influential were Peter Sneath and Robert R. Sokal.
• Phenetic techniques include various forms of clustering and
ordination. These are sophisticated ways of reducing the
variation displayed by organisms to a manageable level. In
practice this means measuring dozens of variables, and then
presenting them as two- or three-dimensional graphs.
5. Cladistic Analysis
• The Phylogeny of an organism is traced back,
it connects through shared ancestors to
lineages of other organisms.
**phylogenetic tree
Cladistics or Phylogenetic Systematics
6. • Given that closely related species share a
common ancestor and often resemble each
other, it might seem that the best way to uncover
the evolutionary relationships would be with
overall similarity.
• Q: In other words, out of a group of species, if
two are most similar, can we reasonably
hypothesize that they are closest relatives?
YES or NO?
7. • Overall similarity may be misleading
because there are actually two
reasons why organisms have similar
characteristics and only one of
them is due to evolutionary
relatedness.
• homologous feature (or
homology)- When two species have
a similar characteristic because it
was inherited by both from a
common ancestor
• Ex: Morphological Divergence
Among Vertebrate Forelimbs
8. • analogous feature (or homoplasy)- When two
species have a similar characteristic because of
convergent evolution
• Convergent evolution - when unrelated species
adopt a similar way of life, their body parts may
take on similar functions and end up resembling
one another
9. • Only homologous similarity is evidence that
two species are evolutionarily related.
• Q: If two animals share the highest number of
homologies, can we reasonably assume they
are closest relatives?
• YES or NO?
• a homology may be recently derived or an
ancient retained feature; only shared recent
homologies (called synapomorphies) are
evidence that two organisms are closely
related.
10. • Ex. The hand of the first vertebrates to live on land had five
digits (fingers).
• Many living terrestrial vertebrates (such as humans, turtles,
crocodiles and frogs) also have five digits because they
inherited them from this common ancestor. This feature is
then homologous in all of these species.
• In contrast, horses, zebras and donkeys have just a single digit
with a hoof.
• Clearly, humans are more closely related to horses, zebras and
donkeys, even though they have a homology in common with
turtles, crocodiles and frogs.
• The key point is that the five digit condition is the primitive
state for the number of digits. It was modified and reduced to
just one digit in the common ancestor of horses, donkeys and
zebras.
11. • In common cladistic usage, a
monophyletic group is a taxon
(group of organisms) which forms
a clade, meaning that it contains
all the descendants of the possibly
hypothetical closest common
ancestor of the members of the
group.
• The term is synonymous with the
uncommon term holophyly.
• Monophyletic groups are typically
characterized by shared derived
characteristics (synapomorphies).
12. • In current usage, a paraphyletic group
consists of all of the descendants of a
possibly hypothetical closest common
ancestor minus one or more
monophyletic groups (most usually
one).
• A paraphyletic group is thus 'nearly'
monophyletic (consistent with the
meaning of the prefix 'para', namely
'near' or 'alongside'.)
• A polyphyletic group is any group
other than a monophyletic group or a
paraphyletic group, which like a
paraphyletic group contains only some
of the descendants of their closest
common ancestor, but unlike a
paraphyletic group is not characterized
by the missing descendants forming
one (or more) monophyletic groups.
13. • A clade is a group of taxa consisting
only of an ancestor taxon and all of
its descendant taxa.
• It is hypothesized that all
vertebrates, including ray-finned
fishes (Actinopterygii), had a
common ancestor all of whose
descendants were vertebrates, and
so form a clade.
• Within the vertebrates, all tetrapods,
including amphibians, mammals,
reptiles (as traditionally defined) and
birds are hypothesized to have had a
common ancestor all of whose
descendants were tetrapods, and so
also form a clade.
• The tetrapod ancestor was a
descendant of the original vertebrate
ancestor, but is not an ancestor of
any ray-finned fish living today.
14. The relationship between clades
can be described in several
ways:
1. A clade is basal to another clade if
it contains that other clade as a
subset within it.
• In the example, the vertebrate
clade is basal to the tetrapod and
ray-finned fish clades.
Note:(Some authors have used "basal" differently to
mean a clade that is less species-rich than a sister
clade, with such a deficit being taken as an
indication of 'primitiveness'. Others consider this
usage to be incorrect.)
15. • A clade located within a clade
is said to be nested within that
clade. In the diagram, the
tetrapod clade is nested
within the vertebrate clade.
• Two clades are sisters if they
have an immediate common
ancestor.
16. • Terminology for characters
The following terms are used to identify shared
or distinct characters among groups:
• Plesiomorphy ("close form") or ancestral
state, also symplesiomorphy ("shared
plesiomorphy", i.e. "shared close form"), is a
characteristic that is present at the base of a
tree (cladogram).
• Since a plesiomorphy that is inherited from
the common ancestor may appear anywhere
in a tree, its presence provides no evidence
of relationships within the tree. The
traditional definition of reptiles (the blue
group in the diagram) includes being cold-
blooded (i.e. not maintaining a constant high
body temperature), whereas birds are warm-
blooded. Since cold-bloodedness is a
plesiomorphy, inherited from the common
ancestor of traditional reptiles and birds, it
should not be used to define a group in a
system based on cladistics.
17. • Apomorphy ("separate form") or
derived state is a characteristic
believed to have evolved within the
tree. It can thus be used to
separate one group in the tree
from the rest.
• Within the group which shares the
apomorphy it is a synapomorphy
("shared apomorphy", i.e. "shared
separate form"). For example,
within the vertebrates, all
tetrapods (and only tetrapods)
have four limbs; thus, having four
limbs is a synapomorphy for
tetrapods. All the tetrapods can
legitimately be grouped together
because they have four limbs.
18. •Homoplasy is a characteristic
shared by members of a tree
but not present in their
common ancestor.
•It arises by convergence or
reversion. Both mammals and
birds are able to maintain a high
constant body temperature (i.e.
they are 'warm-blooded').
However, the ancestors of each
group did not share this
character, so it must have
evolved independently.
Mammals and birds should not
be grouped together on the
basis that they are warm-
blooded.
19. • In an important work (first published in
English in 1966) by the German entomologist
Willi Hennig, it was argued that only shared
derived characters could possibly give us
information about phylogeny.
• The method that groups organisms that share
derived characters is called cladistics or
phylogenetic systematics.
• Taxa that share many derived characters are
grouped more closely together than those
that do not. The relationships are shown in a
branching hierarchical tree called a
cladogram.
20. • If the character has only two states, then the task of
distinguishing primitive and derived character states is
fairly simple: The state which is in the outgroup is
primitive and the one found only in the ingroup is
derived.
• It is common practice to designate the primitive states
as 0 (zero) and the derived states as 1 (one). If you are
going to calculate trees by hand, this will certainly
make your calculations easier.
• On the other hand, if you are using a computer
program to calculate a tree, it isn’t necessary to
designate the plesiomorphic state as 0 (zero):
21. • The first step in basic cladistic analysis is to determine which
character states are primitive and which are derived.
• The outgroup comparison method is the primary one in use today.
• In outgroup comparison, if a taxon that is not a member of the
group of organisms being classified has a character state that is the
same as some of the organisms in the group, then that character
state can be considered to be plesiomorphic.
• The outside taxon is called the outgroup and the organisms being
classified are the ingroup.
22. • The cladogram is constructed such that the
number of changes from one character state
to the next is minimized. The principle behind
this is the rule of parsimony
• parsimony - any hypothesis that requires
fewer assumptions is a more defensible
hypothesis.
• the most parsimonious tree requires the
fewest base changes.
23.
24. 0 1 2 3
0 to 1 = 1 step 1 to 0 = 1 step 1 to 2 = 1 step
0 to 2 = 2 steps
25. 0 1 2 3
0 to 1 = 1 step 1 to 0 = 1 step 1 to 2 = 1 step
26. 0 1 2 3
0 to 1 = 1 step 1 to 0 = NA 1 to 2 = 1 step
27. 0 1 2 3
0 to 1 = 1 step 1 to 0 = NA 1 to 2 = 1 step
28. • Maximum parsimony
– In the case of trees based on morphology, the most parsimonious tree
requires the fewest evolutionary events, as measured by the origin of
shared derived morphological characters.
– For phylogenies based on DNA, the most parsimonious tree requires the
fewest base changes.
Maximum Parsimony
34. WHAT A CLADOGRAM ACTUALLY SAYS ABOUT RELATIONSHIPS
• The trees that result from cladistic
analysis are relative statements of
relationship and do not indicate
ancestors or descendants.
• For example in the tree above,
Prorodon teres and Prorodon marina
are hypothesized to be sister taxa
and to share a more recent common
ancestor with each other than with
Coleps; but the prorodontids (P.
teres+ P. marina+ Coleps) all share a
more recent common ancestor with
one another than with the Placidae
(Placus + Spathidiopsis).
• The tree does not explicitly
hypothesize ancestor-descendant
relationships. In other words, the tree
hypothesizes that Prorodon and
Coleps are related, but not that
Prorodon evolved from Coleps or that
Coleps evolved from Prorodon.
35. Sample Exercise
You have discovered the skeletons of five new fossil animals, and you would like to
investigate their phylogenetic relationships. After being told that species "A" is
very primitive, you decide to use it as the outgroup for a phylogenetic analysis.
77. • Like the phenetic/cladistic system, this
classification groups organisms according to
basic similarity, but unlike the two, it demands
an evolutionary explanation for these
similarities.
• Evolutionary taxonomists regard phenotypic
specialization and degree of change after
divergence from a common ancestor as
important components of classification.
78. • Traditionally, classical evolutionary taxonomists
have considered a taxon worthy of separate
status if its members show a high degree of
specialization relative to those of a closely
related taxon.
• The problem arises in the subjectivity of this
judgment.
79. • Ex. Genetic and ontogenetic data indicate that
birds share a most recent common ancestor
with crocodilians.
80. • The Traditional Phylogeny diagram shows that some unknown common
ancestor evolved into mammals and another unknown common ancestor.
That second unknown ancestor evolved into turtles and a third unknown
ancestor. The third unknown ancestor evolved into the common ancestor
of birds and crocodiles and the common ancestor of tuataras and
squamates. Turtles evolved early, and have remained unchanged for a
long time.
• But DNA evidence (“molecular phylogeny”) shows a different picture. It
shows, for example, that turtles and crocodiles evolved recently from a
common ancestor that also had birds for descendants.
81. • However, because birds have
feathers, are "warm blooded",
and are superficially very different
from crocodilians, the classical
evolutionary biologist places them
in Class Aves, and the crocodilians
in Class Reptilia.
• This means that Class Reptilia
does not include all the species
that descended from the original
ancestral reptile that gave rise to
lizards, snakes, crocodilians, and
birds. Such an artificial taxon,
which does not include all
descendants of a single ancestor,
is said to be paraphyletic
82. • Similarly, Homo sapiens has traditionally been
assigned to its own family (Hominidae),
although there is no objective reason to
taxonomically separate it from the great apes
(Pongidae). Like Reptilia, Pongidae not
including Homo sapiens is paraphyletic.