There are different strategies bacterial cells use to survive. Differentiation can be occasionally one of them. Although differentiation can occur in the bacterial life cycle, it is a strategy to adapt themselves to harsh environments.
A bacteriophage (informally, phage) is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. The term is derived from "bacteria" and the Greek (phagein), "to devour". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have relatively simple or elaborate structures. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are widely distributed in locations populated by bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestines of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface,] and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy). Nevertheless, phages of Inoviridae have been shown to complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis, shelter the bacteria from drugs meant to eradicate disease and promote persistent infection
differentiation in microbes is a peculiar character, different microbes have a different mode of life some lives as a single cell, and some lives as complex life cycle by having different types of cells, coccoid, rod or sedentary cells it's all depend upon their
A bacteriophage (informally, phage) is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. The term is derived from "bacteria" and the Greek (phagein), "to devour". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have relatively simple or elaborate structures. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are widely distributed in locations populated by bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestines of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface,] and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy). Nevertheless, phages of Inoviridae have been shown to complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis, shelter the bacteria from drugs meant to eradicate disease and promote persistent infection
differentiation in microbes is a peculiar character, different microbes have a different mode of life some lives as a single cell, and some lives as complex life cycle by having different types of cells, coccoid, rod or sedentary cells it's all depend upon their
inroduction:Plant viruses are viruses that affect plants.
Pathogenic to higher plants.
. Harmless to human and other animals.
Reduce plant crop yield and quality of crops.
Some may be able to multiply within the bodies
Of aphids and nematodes.
History:Beijernick ( 1897) coined the latin name “VIRUS” meaning Poison. He studied plant juices and found they caused healthy plants to become sick.
Wendell Stanley (1935) crystallized sap from sick Tobacco plants. He discovered viruses were made of nucleic acids and proteins.
Geminivirus:one of the family of plant virus.
Currently over 360 species in this family, divided among 9 genera.
Diseases associated with this family include bright yellow mosaic , yellow mosaic, yellow mottle, leaf curling, stunting, streaks, reduced yields.
Ss circular dna diverge in both directions from a virion strand origin of replication (AMBISENSE).
Virus Classification:Group – Group II (ssDNA)
Order - Unassigned
Family - Geminiviridae
Genera – Becurtovirus Grablovirus
Begomovirus Mastrevirus
Capulavirus Topocuvirus
curtovirus Turncurtovirus
Eragrovirus
Structure: have Circular single-stranded DNA.
Genome is either in two segments.
The non-segmented genome is 2500-3000 nucleotides long, and the segmented genome is 4800-5600 nucleotides long.
The genome encodes for both structural and non-structural proteins.
In geminivirus, both segments must be transmitted to the host for a full systemic infection to occur.
Virion Sturcture:Geminivirus are non-enveloped, icosahedral virions that consists of a capsid.
The capsid is germinate, or twinned, and consists of 22 Capsomers.
The capsid is 30nm long and has a diameter of 18-20nm.
Symptoms:the time of infection, the virus strains and the presence of mixed infections.
Common symptoms are stunting, curling, and twisting of leaves.
Short internodes and stunted appearance , no apical growth caused by early infection.
Replication:Geminivirus encodes only a few proteins, thus they need to dependent host cell factors for replication.
These factors are DNA polymerase and repair polymerase to amplify their genome.
Replicate by a rolling circle mechanism like bacteriophages such as M13, and many plasmids.
Siderophores are compounds from ancient Greek words, sidero ‘iron’ and phore ‘carriers’ meaning ‘iron carriers’. These are low-molecular-weight iron-chelating compounds, produced by ‘rhizospheric bacteria’ under iron-limited conditions. They are small, high affinity iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi etc. Siderophore usually form a stable hexahendate, octahedral complex with Fe3+.
Halophiles (Introduction, Adaptations, Applications)Jamil Ahmad
Introduction
Halophiles are organisms that thrive in high salt concentrations.
They are a type of extremophile organisms. The name comes from the Greek word for "salt-loving".
While most halophiles are classified into the Archaea domain, there are also bacterial halophiles and some eukaryota, such as the alga Dunaliella salina or fungus Wallemia ichthyophaga
Secondary screening of industrial important microbes DhruviSuvagiya
Detection and isolation of a microorganism from a natural environment like soil containing large number of microbial population is called as screening. It is very time consuming and expensive process.
This presentation elaborates on the process through which bacteria communicate with each other using signalling molecules which they can produce and receive.
Viruses that infect and parsitized bacteria is known as bacteriophage.
It was discovered by Frederick.W.Twort in Great Britian (1915) and Felix d’ Herelle in France(1917).
D’ Herelle coined the term bacteriophage meaning ‘bacterial eater’ to describe the agent’s bacteriocidal activity. He observed lysis of a broth culture of a dysentry bacillus.
This presentation is made for the students of B.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology. The presentation includes the details about archaea and the characteristics of archaea bacteria
Bergey's Manual and it's classification. A brief concised presentation prepared for taking seminar and classes.
Volume II (Edition 2) described more in detail.
Animal viruses are self replicating, intracellular parasites that completely rely on host animal cell for reproduction. They use the host's cellular components to replicate, then leaves the host cell to infect other cells.
Basic Knowledge about industrial microorganism. why industry choose microorganism rather than chemical. isolation technique of microorganism. source of microorganisms. Process of using microorganism. Disadvantages of using microorganisms in industry. Process of genetic modification of microorganisms. Storage process of microorganism. preservation methods of microorganism. Reculture methods of microorganism.
Direct methods of measurement of microbial growth includes various methods of enumeration of both viable and non viable cell also includes growth curve. Helpful for UG and PG programs of microbiology
inroduction:Plant viruses are viruses that affect plants.
Pathogenic to higher plants.
. Harmless to human and other animals.
Reduce plant crop yield and quality of crops.
Some may be able to multiply within the bodies
Of aphids and nematodes.
History:Beijernick ( 1897) coined the latin name “VIRUS” meaning Poison. He studied plant juices and found they caused healthy plants to become sick.
Wendell Stanley (1935) crystallized sap from sick Tobacco plants. He discovered viruses were made of nucleic acids and proteins.
Geminivirus:one of the family of plant virus.
Currently over 360 species in this family, divided among 9 genera.
Diseases associated with this family include bright yellow mosaic , yellow mosaic, yellow mottle, leaf curling, stunting, streaks, reduced yields.
Ss circular dna diverge in both directions from a virion strand origin of replication (AMBISENSE).
Virus Classification:Group – Group II (ssDNA)
Order - Unassigned
Family - Geminiviridae
Genera – Becurtovirus Grablovirus
Begomovirus Mastrevirus
Capulavirus Topocuvirus
curtovirus Turncurtovirus
Eragrovirus
Structure: have Circular single-stranded DNA.
Genome is either in two segments.
The non-segmented genome is 2500-3000 nucleotides long, and the segmented genome is 4800-5600 nucleotides long.
The genome encodes for both structural and non-structural proteins.
In geminivirus, both segments must be transmitted to the host for a full systemic infection to occur.
Virion Sturcture:Geminivirus are non-enveloped, icosahedral virions that consists of a capsid.
The capsid is germinate, or twinned, and consists of 22 Capsomers.
The capsid is 30nm long and has a diameter of 18-20nm.
Symptoms:the time of infection, the virus strains and the presence of mixed infections.
Common symptoms are stunting, curling, and twisting of leaves.
Short internodes and stunted appearance , no apical growth caused by early infection.
Replication:Geminivirus encodes only a few proteins, thus they need to dependent host cell factors for replication.
These factors are DNA polymerase and repair polymerase to amplify their genome.
Replicate by a rolling circle mechanism like bacteriophages such as M13, and many plasmids.
Siderophores are compounds from ancient Greek words, sidero ‘iron’ and phore ‘carriers’ meaning ‘iron carriers’. These are low-molecular-weight iron-chelating compounds, produced by ‘rhizospheric bacteria’ under iron-limited conditions. They are small, high affinity iron chelating compounds secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi etc. Siderophore usually form a stable hexahendate, octahedral complex with Fe3+.
Halophiles (Introduction, Adaptations, Applications)Jamil Ahmad
Introduction
Halophiles are organisms that thrive in high salt concentrations.
They are a type of extremophile organisms. The name comes from the Greek word for "salt-loving".
While most halophiles are classified into the Archaea domain, there are also bacterial halophiles and some eukaryota, such as the alga Dunaliella salina or fungus Wallemia ichthyophaga
Secondary screening of industrial important microbes DhruviSuvagiya
Detection and isolation of a microorganism from a natural environment like soil containing large number of microbial population is called as screening. It is very time consuming and expensive process.
This presentation elaborates on the process through which bacteria communicate with each other using signalling molecules which they can produce and receive.
Viruses that infect and parsitized bacteria is known as bacteriophage.
It was discovered by Frederick.W.Twort in Great Britian (1915) and Felix d’ Herelle in France(1917).
D’ Herelle coined the term bacteriophage meaning ‘bacterial eater’ to describe the agent’s bacteriocidal activity. He observed lysis of a broth culture of a dysentry bacillus.
This presentation is made for the students of B.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology. The presentation includes the details about archaea and the characteristics of archaea bacteria
Bergey's Manual and it's classification. A brief concised presentation prepared for taking seminar and classes.
Volume II (Edition 2) described more in detail.
Animal viruses are self replicating, intracellular parasites that completely rely on host animal cell for reproduction. They use the host's cellular components to replicate, then leaves the host cell to infect other cells.
Basic Knowledge about industrial microorganism. why industry choose microorganism rather than chemical. isolation technique of microorganism. source of microorganisms. Process of using microorganism. Disadvantages of using microorganisms in industry. Process of genetic modification of microorganisms. Storage process of microorganism. preservation methods of microorganism. Reculture methods of microorganism.
Direct methods of measurement of microbial growth includes various methods of enumeration of both viable and non viable cell also includes growth curve. Helpful for UG and PG programs of microbiology
Genome Editing Comes of Age; CRISPR, rAAV and the new landscape of molecular ...Candy Smellie
Information is no longer a bottleneck, emphasis is shifting to the ‘what does it all mean’
In a translational context we hope that by answering that question we will be able to is to characterise the genetics that drive disease, and indeed develop drugs and diagnostics that are personalised to patients.
Genome editing provides the link between the information here, and this outcome here, by allowing scientists to recapitulate specific genetic alterations in any gene in any living tissue to probe function, develop disease models and identify therapeutic strategies. So, not only do we now have unparalleled access to genetic information, but we now have the tools to most accuartely understand what this genetic information – with genome editing allowing us to explore the genetic drivers of disease in physiological models.
AAV is a single-stranded, linear DNA virus with a a 4.7 kb genome which for the purpose of genome editing is replaced almost in entirety with the targeting vector sequence (except for the iTRs)
It is in effect a highly effective DNA delivery mechanism
After entry of the vector into the cell, target-specific homologous DNA is believed to activate and recruit HR-dependent repair factors can induce HR at rates approximately 1,000 times greater than plasmid based double stranded DNA vectors, but the mechanism by which it achieves this is still largely unknown
By including a selection cassette can select for cells that have integrated the targeting vector, and then screen for clones which have undergone targeted insetion rather than random integration, which will generally be around 1%.
The CRISPR/Cas9 system has emerged as one of the leading tools for modifying genomes of organisms ranging from E. coli to humans. Additionally, the simple gene targeting mechanism of CRISPR technology has been modified and adapted to other applications that include gene regulation, detection of intercellular trafficking, and pathogen detection. With a wealth of methods for introducing Cas9 and gRNAs into cells, it can be challenging to decide where to start. In this presentation, Dr Adam Clore describes the CRISPR mechanism and some of the most prominent uses for CRISPR, along with methods where IDT technologies can assist scientists in designing, testing, and executing a variety of CRISPR-mediated experiments. For more informaton, visit: http://www.idtdna.com/crispr
The future belongs to young people ...
and it is us who will be affected most by the decisions we take today on Aids/HIV epidemic, climate change, food, energy, environmental degradation, economic stability and the continuing challenge of world poverty.
Such decisions will influence the shape and quality of our future lives and could even dictate how long we will live. So it is very important that us, as individuals and as a group, take a keen interest in these issues now – and make absolutely sure our views are heard.
_____________________________
I heard about this contest from an email from Slideshare.
An Introduction to Crispr Genome EditingChris Thorne
In this short presentation, I make a case for doing genome editing vs some of the approaches that have gone before, describe some of the tools available, and the focus on CRISPR-Cas9, what it is, where it's come from and how it works.
Gene therapy is an experimental treatment that involves introducing genetic material into a person’s cells to fight or prevent disease. Researchers are studying gene therapy for a number of diseases, such as severe combined immuno-deficiencies, hemophilia, Parkinson's disease, cancer and even HIV, through a number of different approaches (see video: 'Gene Therapy a new tool to cure human diseases'). A gene can be delivered to a cell using a carrier known as a “vector.” The most common types of vectors used in gene therapy are viruses. The viruses used in gene therapy are altered to make them safe, although some risks still exist with gene therapy. The technology is still in its infancy, but it has been used with some success.
Bacteria are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats
ABSTRACT- Bacterial Spores are robust and dormant life forms. The enthralling controlling system can maintain the spore dormancy for years yet allow the reappearance into active state within minutes thus provide resistance to the bacterium to heat, freezing, chemicals, radiations and other adverse environments. In spite of being considered as a spoilage and disease cause, Bacterial spores have been emerging as a miracle package. The survivability of bacterial spores under harsh conditions provides various solutions to human needs. Thus bacterial spores are drawing increased interest of the researchers as a solution to get work done under tough conditions. Bacterial spores have been exploited successfully to develop Biological Detection Systems as they can sense environmental changes and respond rapidly. Recently several spore based biosensors have been developed for the detection of different contaminants from different sources. More valued Probiotic Products based on bacterial spores have also been developed as spores can travel through GIT safely due to their resistant to digestive enzymes.Taking advantage of spore survivability, Pest Control Products based on spores are being used for making innovations in pest control. Different strains of Bacillus thuringiensis have been used to protect crops. More recent Bt genes have been expressed in transgenic plants to provide inherent resistance. Bacillus spores also have been exploited for vaccine delivery as a non- invasive and thermostable vaccine delivery system. Bioremediation and Electricity generation is also another applied corner of bacterial spores. This reevaluation highlights the potential of this simpler microbial structure and recent growth in the applied bacterial spore biology.
Key-words- Bacterial Spore, Biological detection system, Probiotics, Vaccine delivery, Bioremediation
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
3. Introduction
• Living cells can change morphologically.
• Important reasons for differentiation:
1. Adaption to environmental conditions
2. Expressing different functions at different times in the life cycle
• Thus differentiation can be triggered by:
1. Environmental signal
2. No external signal inherent to the growth
• The specialized cell types is the outcome of complex regulatory pathways:
1. Altered gene expression
2. differential protein stability
3. differential protein localization
Chater, Keith F. "Bacterial Cell Differentiation." eLS (2005).
3
4. I. Single-Cell Differentiations
1. Dimorphic life cycle in Caulobacter crescentus
2. Endospore formation in Bacillus sibtilis
3. Actinomycetes spores
4. Cysts in Cyanobacteria
5. Heterocysts in Azotobacter
4
6. Caulobacter crescentus life cycle
• Caulobacter crescentus is the best studied of the so-called
stalked bacteria.
• C. crescentus does not differentiate in response to
nutritional stress or environmental cues differentiation
is a central part of the growth cycle
• Two very different cells are formed:
- Swarmer cells: motile and incapable
of replicating its DNA
- Stalked cells: nonmotile but capable
of DNA replication Stalk
Holdfast
Poindexter, Jeanne S. "Dimorphic prosthecate bacteria: the genera Caulobacter, Asticcacaulis, Hyphomicrobium, Pedomicrobium,
Hyphomonas and Thiodendron." The prokaryotes. Springer New York, 2006. 72-90.
6
7. Caulobacter crescentus life cycle
• Caulobacter crescentus is the best studied of the so-called
stalked bacteria.
• C. crescentus does not differentiate in response to
nutritional stress or environmental cues differentiation
is a central part of the growth cycle
Stalk
Holdfast
Poindexter, Jeanne S. "Dimorphic prosthecate bacteria: the genera Caulobacter, Asticcacaulis, Hyphomicrobium, Pedomicrobium,
Hyphomonas and Thiodendron." The prokaryotes. Springer New York, 2006. 72-90.
6
8. Other Stalked Bacteria
Jiang, Chao, et al. "Sequential evolution of bacterial morphology by co-option of a developmental regulator." Nature (2014).
7
9. • Swarmer cell : dedicates its energy towards motility and dispersal.
• Stalked cell : attached to some surface via its stalk/holdfast structure and gives off
daughter swarmer cells.
• In response to an as-yet unknown intracellular signal, the swarmer cell sheds its
flagellum and pili. A stalk is produced at the same pole while DNA replication is
initiated.
Caulobacter crescentus life cycle
Jensen, Rasmus B., Sherry C. Wang, and Lucy Shapiro. "Dynamic localization of proteins and DNA during a bacterial cell cycle." Nature Reviews
Molecular Cell Biology 3.3 (2002): 167-176.
8
10. Caulobacter crescentus life cycle
Hughes, Velocity, Chao Jiang, and Yves Brun. "< i> Caulobacter crescentus</i>." Current Biology 22.13 (2012): R507-R509.
9
11. Jensen, Rasmus B., Sherry C. Wang, and Lucy Shapiro. "Dynamic localization of proteins and DNA during a bacterial cell cycle." Nature Reviews
Molecular Cell Biology 3.3 (2002): 167-176.
10
14. Endospore formation
• It is an extreme survival strategy employed by certain low G+C Gram-positive
bacteria.
• Spores are resistant to heat, cold, radiation, and other adverse environmental
conditions.
• The primary function of endospore formation appears to be the survival and
dissemination of the species.
• When the environment becomes more favorable, the endospore can reactivate
itself to the vegetative state.
• Time and effort has been expended in the study of this process in the genus
Bacillus, particularly Bacillus subtilis.
Higgins, Douglas, and Jonathan Dworkin. "Recent progress in Bacillus subtilis sporulation." FEMS microbiology reviews 36.1
(2012): 131-148.
13
16. • Actively growing cells of Bacillus subtilis are induced to differentiate into spores by
starvation for carbon, nitrogen or, in some circumstances a phosphorus
source.(piggot 2004)
• REMEBER: sporulation is a very energy-consuming process, it cannot proceed in the
complete absence of nutrients.
Endospore formation in B. subtilis
Higgins, Douglas, and Jonathan Dworkin. "Recent progress in Bacillus subtilis sporulation." FEMS microbiology reviews 36.1
(2012): 131-148.
15
17. • Two transcriptional regulators, σH
and Spo0A, play key roles in
initiation of sporulation.
• Several additional proteins
participate, mainly by controlling
the accumulated concentration of
Spo0A~P.
• Over 125 gene products govern the
complex morphological and
biochemical changes that take place
during sporulation.
• Spore formation takes about 7 h at
37 C.
Endospore formation in B. subtilis
Higgins, Douglas, and Jonathan Dworkin. "Recent progress in Bacillus subtilis sporulation." FEMS microbiology reviews 36.1
(2012): 131-148.
16
18. Endospore formation in B. subtilis
Starvation
Functional
TCA
A
pheromone
Sporulation
occurs
C, N or F/
in Stationary phase
citC mutants did
not sporulate
EDF1
17
19. Endospore formation in B. subtilis
Moat, Albert G., John W. Foster, and Michael P. Spector, eds. Microbial physiology. John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
18
20. Moat, Albert G., John W. Foster, and Michael P. Spector, eds. Microbial physiology. John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
19
21. Endospore formation in B. subtilis
Tojo, Shigeo, Kazutake Hirooka, and Yasutaro Fujita. "Expression of kinA and kinB of Bacillus subtilis, necessary for sporulation initiation, is under
positive stringent transcription control." Journal of bacteriology 195.8 (2013): 1656-1665.
20
23. Actinomycete Spores
• Under nutrient poor conditions filaments differentiate into spores.
• In contrast to endospores, these structures are part of the reproductive process.
• The developmental process to create an actinomycete spore is less complex than
that of the endospore. It involves the simple formation of cross walls that divide the
filament into sections, each containing a chromosome. These then differentiate into
mature spores.
• During this process a tougher cell wall is laid down and there is conversion of the
cytoplasm to a dormant state so that the spore becomes more resistant to heat and
chemicals, though not as hardy as an endospore.
• Actinomycete spores are capable of surviving for long periods of time (for years) and
can germinate into vegetative cells when appropriate growth conditions are
present.
Angert, Esther R. "Alternatives to binary fission in bacteria." Nature Reviews Microbiology 3.3 (2005): 214-224.
22
24. Actinomycete Spores
• During the life cycle of the filamentous bacteria Streptomyces, morphological
differentiation is closely integrated with fundamental growth and cell-cycle
processes.
Angert, Esther R. "Alternatives to binary fission in bacteria." Nature Reviews Microbiology 3.3 (2005): 214-224.
23
25. • In response to nutrient depletion and other signals, both production of secondary
metabolites and morphological differentiation are initiated.
Spore in S. coelicolor
Aeral hyphae
Switches from
extension to
septation
Controlled cell
division
Segregation of
chromosomes
Spore
maturation
24
26. Spore in S. coelicolor
Switch from
extension to
septation
Flärdh, Klas, and Mark J. Buttner. "Streptomyces morphogenetics: dissecting differentiation in a filamentous
bacterium." Nature Reviews Microbiology 7.1 (2009): 36-49.
25
27. Spore in S. coelicolor
Switch from
extension to
septation
Flärdh, Klas, and Mark J. Buttner. "Streptomyces morphogenetics: dissecting differentiation in a filamentous
bacterium." Nature Reviews Microbiology 7.1 (2009): 36-49.
25
28. Controlled
cell division
Switch from
extension to
septation
Spore in S. coelicolor
Flärdh, Klas, and Mark J. Buttner. "Streptomyces morphogenetics: dissecting differentiation in a filamentous
bacterium." Nature Reviews Microbiology 7.1 (2009): 36-49.
26
29. Controlled
cell division
Switch from
extension to
septation
Chromosom
segragation
Spore in S. coelicolor
Flärdh, Klas, and Mark J. Buttner. "Streptomyces morphogenetics: dissecting differentiation in a filamentous
bacterium." Nature Reviews Microbiology 7.1 (2009): 36-49.
27
30. • Spore maturation involves the production of a thick, lysozyme-
resistant spore wall.
• This wall is laid down after sporulation septation is complete.
• The correct assembly of the spore wall depends on mreB, which
may explain why Streptomyces and a few other sporulating
actinomycete genera contain genes for this ancestral actin,
whereas most other actinobacteria do not.
• The subcellular localization of MreB–EGFP is consistent with a
role for MreB in assembly of the spore wall.
• Correct is: first as bands that coincide with sporulation septa at
both poles after septal constriction, and then spreading out to
surround the spore completely, lining the inner surface of the
membrane before disappearing in the mature spores.
Controlled
cell division
Switch from
extension to
septation
Chromosom
segragation
Spore
maturation
Spore in S. coelicolor
Flärdh, Klas, and Mark J. Buttner. "Streptomyces morphogenetics: dissecting differentiation in a filamentous
bacterium." Nature Reviews Microbiology 7.1 (2009): 36-49.
28
31. Spore in S. coelicolor
"Encyclopedia of Life Science." Reference
Reviews 24, no. 5 (2010): 46-46.
29
33. Azotobacter Cysts
• Bacteria of the genus Azotobacter are
nitrogen-fixing, Gram-negative organotrophs.
• At the end of exponential growth, some cells
undergo a final division and initiate the
formation of cysts.
• These differentiated cells are strikingly
different from endospores formed by Bacillus
spp.
• A. vinelandii has been the object of intensive
research on its growth, differentiation and
genetic properties.
Cocotl-Yañez, Miguel, et al. "Roles of RpoS and PsrA in cyst formation and alkylresorcinol synthesis in Azotobacter
vinelandii." Microbiology 157.6 (2011): 1685-1693.
31
34. • When A. vinelandii experiences a lack of nutrients, it will develop into cyst . The cell
is then protected against desiccation by a multilayered coat, of which gel-forming
alginate is a necessary part.(j. bacteril 2009)
• Depending on the carbon source and the conditions under which growth occurs,
poly-b-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) accumulates in vegetative cells, and the extent of
encystment in such cultures is related to the intracellular concentration of that
polymer.
• The problem studying encystment genetics is the inability to generate useful
mutants of the organism.
• Azotobacter cells are refractory to mutagenesis except for those genes involved in
nitrogen fixation and resistance to certain antibiotics. The basis for this difficulty
may lie in the large amount of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (6.610214 g per cell) that
these cells possess.
Azotobacter Cysts
Gimmestad, Martin, et al. "Characterization of three new Azotobacter vinelandii alginate lyases, one of which is involved in cyst
germination." Journal of bacteriology 191.15 (2009): 4845-4853.
32
35. Exine
Intine
Funa, Nobutaka, et al. "Phenolic lipid synthesis by type III polyketide synthases is essential for cyst formation in Azotobacter
vinelandii."Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.16 (2006): 6356-6361.
33
36. AlgU (sigma E)
algC cydR
RpoS
algD phbB
PsrA
Azotobacter Cysts
Alginate
synthesis
PHB
biosynthesis
flhDC cydAB
Loss of
flagella
Inhibits nitrogen
fixation
Alginate
synthesis
Cocotl-Yañez, Miguel, et al. "Roles of RpoS and PsrA in cyst formation and alkylresorcinol synthesis in Azotobacter vinelandii." Microbiology 157.6 (2011):
1685-1693.
34
38. Heterocyst in cyanobacteria
• Many cyanobacterial species are capable of nitrogen fixation. However, oxygenic
photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation are incompatible processes because
nitrogenase is inactivated by oxygen.
Mechanisms to
separate these
activities
Temporal
Spatialy
(differentiation)
Kumar, Krithika, Rodrigo A. Mella-Herrera, and James W. Golden. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.4 (2010): a000315.
36
39. • In the presence of a source of combined nitrogen such as nitrate or ammonium,
Anabaena grows as long filaments containing hundreds of photosynthetic vegetative
cells.
• In the absence of combined nitrogen, it produces heterocysts every ten to twenty
vegetative cells along filaments.
Heterocyst in cyanobacteria
Kumar, Krithika, Rodrigo A. Mella-Herrera, and James W. Golden. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.4 (2010): a000315.
37
40. • Oxygen-producing photosystem PSII is dismantled during differentiation and
heterocysts show an increased rate of respiration.
• Morphological changes include the deposition of two additional envelope layers
around the heterocyst: an inner “laminated” layer composed of two heterocyst
specific glycolipids (HGL)and an outer polysaccharide layer (HEP).
• Heterocysts and vegetative cells are mutually interdependent. Because they lack
photosystem II and carbon fixation, heterocysts are dependent on vegetative cells
for a source of reductant and carbon, which is probably partially supplied as sucrose.
• In Anabaena PCC 7120, vegetative cells must also supply glutamate to heterocysts,
which convert it to glutamine and other amino acids.
• In return, newly fixed nitrogen is rapidly exported from heterocysts and distributed
to nearby vegetative cells.
Heterocyst in Anabaena
Kumar, Krithika, Rodrigo A. Mella-Herrera, and James W. Golden. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.4 (2010): a000315.
38
41. • The timeline of heterocyst development begins with sensing combined-nitrogen
limitation and culminates with nitrogen fixation in the mature heterocyst.
• Heterocyst development is complete in about 20 hours at 30 ◦C reversibly when the
combined nitrogen source is available.
Heterocyst in Anabaena
Kumar, Krithika, Rodrigo A. Mella-Herrera, and James W. Golden. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.4 (2010): a000315.
Picture from: Cumino, Andrea C., et al. "Carbon cycling in Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. Sucrose synthesis in the heterocysts and possible
role in nitrogen fixation." Plant physiology 143.3 (2007): 1385-1397.
39
42. Heterocyst in Anabaena
Walsby, Anthony E. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts: terminal pores proposed as sites of gas exchange." Trends in microbiology 15.8
(2007): 340-349.
40
43. Heterocyst in Anabaena
Walsby, Anthony E. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts: terminal pores proposed as sites of gas exchange." Trends in microbiology 15.8
(2007): 340-349.
41
44. • In cyanobacteria, 2-oxoglutarate, an intermediate in the Krebs cycle, constitutes
the signal for nitrogen deprivation.
• The Krebs cycle in cyanobacteria is incomplete because of the lack of 2-oxoglutarate
dehydrogenase 2-oxoglutarate’s main function is to serve as a precursor in a
variety of biosynthetic reactions. It is the primary carbon skeleton for incorporation
of ammonium and is considered the metabolic junction between carbon and
nitrogen balance in cyanobacteria.
• Nitrogen limiting conditions result in an increase in the levels of 2-oxoglutarate.
• NtcA, a transcriptional regulator belonging to the CRP (cyclic AMP receptor protein)
family of proteins, senses 2-oxoglutarate levels.
• In Anabaena PCC 7120, NtcA is required for the expression of the genes in pathways
for ammonium and nitrate assimilation, as well as heterocyst development.
Heterocyst in Anabaena
Kumar, Krithika, Rodrigo A. Mella-Herrera, and James W. Golden. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.4 (2010): a000315.
42
45. Heterocyst in Anabaena
Kumar, Krithika, Rodrigo A. Mella-Herrera, and James W. Golden. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.4 (2010): a000315.
43
46. Heterocyst in Anabaena
Kumar, Krithika, Rodrigo A. Mella-Herrera, and James W. Golden. "Cyanobacterial heterocysts." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.4 (2010): a000315.
44
49. Fruiting body in Myxobacteria
• Myxobacteria are a group of Gram-negative bacteria that are predominantly found
in soil.
• During starvation, growth is arrested and a developmental program is initiated,
which culminates in the formation of spore-bearing fruiting bodies that have a well-
defined shape .
Claessen, Dennis, et al. "Bacterial solutions to multicellularity: a tale of biofilms, filaments and fruiting bodies." Nature Reviews
Microbiology 12.2 (2014): 115-124.
47
50. • The first signs of fruiting body formation are evident 4–6 hours after the exhaustion
of resources.
• This is accompanied by changes in cell motility and the formation of aggregation
centers.
• Within 24 hours, the aggregation process is complete, and the nascent fruiting
bodies each contain approximately 105 densely packed cells that differentiate into
spores.
Fruiting body in Myxobacteria
Claessen, Dennis, et al. "Bacterial solutions to multicellularity: a tale of biofilms, filaments and fruiting bodies." Nature Reviews
Microbiology 12.2 (2014): 115-124.
48
52. Myxococcus xanthus life cycle
• Nutrition is depleted
• Cell density is high
• Solid support is available
Kaiser, Dale, Mark Robinson, and Lee Kroos. "Myxobacteria, polarity, and multicellular morphogenesis." Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in
biology 2.8 (2010): a000380.
50
53. Myxococcus xanthus life cycle
Chater, Keith F. "Bacterial Cell Differentiation." eLS (2005).
51
57. Swarmer cell differentiation
• Swarming is the fastest known bacterial mode of surface translocation and enables
the rapid colonization of a nutrient-rich environment and host tissues.
• It requires functional flagella and is coupled to the production of a viscous slime
layer.
• It is widespread in many genera of Gram negative and Gram-positive flagellated
bacteria and is typically assayed on a solidified medium, containing 0.5–2% agar.
• Species such as Proteus mirabilis and Vibrio parahaemolyticus, which are capable of
vigorous swarming even on high-agar medium.
• Swarming has been studied extensively in P. mirabilis, in which elongated,
multinucleated and hyper-flagellated swarmer cells can spread as multicellular rafts
across surfaces.
Verstraeten, Natalie, et al. "Living on a surface: swarming and biofilm formation." Trends in microbiology 16.10 (2008): 496-506.
55
59. Swarmer cell differentiation in P. mirabilis
• P. mirabilis, a Gram-negative Enterobacteriaceae that is often associated with
urinary tract infections .
• Vegetative swimmer cells possess four to eight peritrichous flagella, whereas
differentiated swarmer cells are elongated and hyperflagellated.
Vegetative P. mirabilis Differentiated to a swarmer P. mirabilis
Belas, Robert. "Biofilms, flagella, and mechanosensing of surfaces by bacteria." Trends in Microbiology (2014).
57
60. Swarmer cell differentiation in P. mirabilis
• P. mirabilis, a Gram-negative Enterobacteriaceae that is often associated with
urinary tract infections .
• Vegetative swimmer cells possess four to eight peritrichous flagella, whereas
differentiated swarmer cells are elongated and hyperflagellated.
Belas, Robert. "Biofilms, flagella, and mechanosensing of surfaces by bacteria." Trends in Microbiology (2014).
55
61. • Although many species swarm including Aeromonas, Azospirillum, B. subtilis, E.
coli, Rhodospirillum, Rhizobium, Salmonella, Serratia, and Yersinia, only a few (two
notable examples are V. parahaemolyticus and P. mirabilis) do so after a surface-
induced physiological differentiation that results in an elongated, highly flagellated
swarmer cell.
• P. mirabilis swarmer cell differentiation is triggered by physical conditions that
inhibit the rotation of the peritrichous flagella of the swimmer cell (belas 2014)
• P. mirabilis flagellum functions as a mechanosensor of the surface signal.
• Both lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and O-antigen play a part in P. mirabilis surface
sensing.
• Nutrient availability is crucial to sustain the energy demanding process of swarming
(verstraeten)
Swarmer cell differentiation in P. mirabilis
Morgenstein, Randy M., Bree Szostek, and Philip N. Rather. "Regulation of gene expression during swarmer cell differentiation in
Proteus mirabilis." FEMS microbiology reviews 34.5 (2010): 753-763.
58
62. Swarmer cell differentiation in P. mirabilis
Armbruster, Chelsie E., and Harry LT Mobley. "Merging mythology and morphology: the multifaceted lifestyle of Proteus mirabilis." Nature
Reviews Microbiology 10.11 (2012): 743-754.
59
65. References to dig deeper!
• Chater, Keith F. "Bacterial Cell Differentiation." eLS (2005).
• Kaiser, Dale. "Cell-Cell Interactions." The Prokaryotes. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, 2013. 511-528.
• Celiker, Hasan, and Jeff Gore. "Cellular cooperation: insights from
microbes."Trends in cell biology 23.1 (2013): 9-15.
62
(whether components of complex tissues or unicellular organisms)
Caulobacter, Asticcacaulis,Hyphomicrobium, Pedomicrobium,Hyphomonas and Thiodendron az http://link.springer.com.sci-hub.org/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F0-387-30745-1_4.
C. crescentus is an aquatic Gram-negative bacterium that thrives in nutrient-poor environments and exhibits an elaborate life cycle.
AHAT???????
The swarmer cell has a single polar flagellum
and pili (at the flagellar pole) and is capable of chemotaxis.
The Stalk. The stalk of C. crescentus can be described as an extension of the cell
body. The center of the stalk is cytoplasmic in origin and appears to be contiguous
with the cytoplasm of the cell but devoid of ribosomes and DNA. The surface of the
stalk is also continuous with the cell surface structure of the cell body. Along the stalk
are crossbands of peptidoglycan and perhaps other material. These crossbands link the
inner and outer membranes to provide rigidity to the stalk. Interestingly, the numbers
of crossbands are believed to reflect the age of the cell. One crossband is formed during
each cell cycle, and recent evidence indicates that the stalk grows linearly with each
generation.
az cap_19_3
Stalked bacteria are a broadly diverse collection of Gram-negative bacteria that are
members of the α Proteobacteria. They are referred to as stalked bacteria because
at some stage in their life cycle they all possess at least one extension from the cell
surface called a stalk—also known as prostheca, appendages, or hypha.
As mentioned, the holdfast is located at the tip of the stalk and
functions as an attachment organelle
Chemical analysis of the holdfast indicates that it is a
complex polysaccharide containing a number of acidic residues such as uronic acids
Caulobacter, Asticcacaulis,Hyphomicrobium, Pedomicrobium,Hyphomonas and Thiodendron az http://link.springer.com.sci-hub.org/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F0-387-30745-1_4.
C. crescentus is an aquatic Gram-negative bacterium that thrives in nutrient-poor environments and exhibits an elaborate life cycle.
AHAT???????
The swarmer cell has a single polar flagellum
and pili (at the flagellar pole) and is capable of chemotaxis.
The Stalk. The stalk of C. crescentus can be described as an extension of the cell
body. The center of the stalk is cytoplasmic in origin and appears to be contiguous
with the cytoplasm of the cell but devoid of ribosomes and DNA. The surface of the
stalk is also continuous with the cell surface structure of the cell body. Along the stalk
are crossbands of peptidoglycan and perhaps other material. These crossbands link the
inner and outer membranes to provide rigidity to the stalk. Interestingly, the numbers
of crossbands are believed to reflect the age of the cell. One crossband is formed during
each cell cycle, and recent evidence indicates that the stalk grows linearly with each
generation.
az cap_19_3
Stalked bacteria are a broadly diverse collection of Gram-negative bacteria that are
members of the α Proteobacteria. They are referred to as stalked bacteria because
at some stage in their life cycle they all possess at least one extension from the cell
surface called a stalk—also known as prostheca, appendages, or hypha.
As mentioned, the holdfast is located at the tip of the stalk and
functions as an attachment organelle
Chemical analysis of the holdfast indicates that it is a
complex polysaccharide containing a number of acidic residues such as uronic acids
az cap_19_3
ax az: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journal/v3/n3/fig_tab/nrm758_F1.html
yet unknown:
Our experiments
indicate that nitrogen availability, but not carbon limitation,
results in an extension of the swarmer cell life span, suggesting
that relative nutrient abundance influences core cell cycle regulatory
networks, which, in turn, delays the initiation of an
internal swarmer cell differentiation pathway. az1240-09
az main.pdf
CtrA is
synthesized and activated in the
stalked cell shortly after DNA
replication initiation. As the stalked
cell progresses towards division,
two important regulatory proteins, the histidine kinases DivJ and PleC,
localize to opposite poles of the
cell (Figure 1). At the stalked pole,
DivJ signaling favors localization,
degradation, and inactivation of CtrA.
Conversely, at the pole opposite
the stalk, PleC signaling promotes
the dispersal and activity of CtrA.
When both are present in the
elongating stalked cell, PleC’s effect
dominates and CtrA remains active.
But upon cell constriction at the
predivisional stage, the two daughter
cell compartments differentially
inherit either DivJ or PleC. In the
stalked compartment, DivJ signaling
abolishes CtrA activity, allowing
immediate initiation of a new round
of DNA replication and growth in the
stalked daughter. Conversely, in the
swarmer compartment, PleC signaling
maintains CtrA activity, which
continues to inhibit differentiation
and DNA replication until its timed
degradation. Thus, differential
localization of regulatory proteins at
the two ends of the pre-divisional
cell drives developmental asymmetry
between the daughter cells of
Caulobacter’s division. atn az hamun main
STALK LENGTH: C. crescentus differentiation is not responsive to extracellular phosphate
concentrations, phosphate limitation does have an extraordinary effect on stalk
biosynthesis. Phosphate starvation stimulates stalk biosynthesis, leading to stalks 15
to 30 times the length of stalks (1–2 μm) produced in excess phosphate conditions.
The increased stalk length during phosphate limitation
can have many benefits. For example, elongating the stalk will increase the surface
area of the cell, which allows for more efficient uptake and utilization of available
phosphate sources as well as other nutrients. Not surprisingly, some aspects of stalk
biosynthesis are under the control of the pho regulon.
By increasing cell surface
area and especially cell length relative
to volume, the stalk thus better
permits sessile, reproductively active
cells to take up nutrients that aid in
growth and division. In addition to
nutrient uptake, the stalk might serve
other purposes. Though stalks are not
required for attachment to surfaces
using holdfast, stalks allow cells to
extend away from surfaces to which
they are attached, providing access
to more nutrients. Stalks also increase
the buoyancy of unattached cells and
facilitate their ability to stay close to
air/water interfaces, a desirable trait
for aerobes like Caulobacter.
HoldFAST GENES: four-gene operon, hfaABDC operon, has been identified as being important in holdfast
attachment to the cell. The roles of each of these gene are still unclear
a | In the Caulobacter crescentus cell cycle, stalked cells alternate between a DNA replication phase (S) and a short growth phase (G2), followed by cell division (M). Swarmer cells have a growth phase (G1) before differentiating into a stalked cell and entering S phase. The concentrations of the four cell cycle regulators DnaA, GcrA, CtrA and CcrM during the cell cycle and in different cell compartments are indicated by colours corresponding to these proteins in part b. b | The C. crescentus cell cycle oscillator. DnaA activates the transcription of gcrA, and GcrA then activates the transcription of ctrA; CtrA in turn activates the transcription of ccrM. CcrM closes the cycle by remethylating the dnaA promoter, which is only active when it is fully methylated. The DnaA–GcrA–CtrA–CcrM cascade is illustrated in the pink box. The CtrA phosphorelay and its spatial regulation by DivK are illustrated in the two cells to the right. In the transcriptional cascade, the effect of DNA methylation (CH3) status on promoter activity is indicated. The output of the cell cycle oscillator, as shown, is to effect the sequential stages of the cell cycle and to regulate the indicated gene molecules. Gene modules that are induced by DnaA, GcrA and CtrA-P are coloured according to their regulators127,128, 129. c | The central genetic circuit of the cell cycle oscillator, involving a positive and a delayed negative feedback loop.
HoldFAST GENES: four-gene operon, hfaABDC operon, has been identified as being important in holdfast
attachment to the cell. The roles of each of these gene are still unclear
But Caulobacter’s
strategy constrains the energetically
expensive process of chromosome
replication to occur just once per
cell cycle, perhaps to help it thrive
in comparatively nutrient-starved
environments (E. coli gets to live
in guts, Caulobacter in pristine
lakes). Furthermore, from an
ecological perspective, the diphasic
development of Caulobacter ensures
the persistence of two cell types
in any given population az main
master regul: As an indication of the importance of CtrA, chromosome immunoprecipitation
experiments found 55 genes directly regulated
by CtrA (132). Microarray experiments found that 144
genes (26% of all cell cycle regulated genes) have altered
transcription due to direct or indirect CtrA activity (133).
A to E sites: Comparison of freshwater and marine Caulobacter oris demonstrates
that while the number and position of CtrA binding
sites are variable, the most conserved CtrA binding sites are
always found in close proximity to DnaA binding sites, indicating
that the most universally conserved function of CtrA in
the ori is to modulate DnaA binding and subsequent replication
initiation (216).
CtrA controls flagellum biosynthesis, stalk biosynthesis, DNA replication, and cell
division. CtrA also regulates DNA methylation. It is therefore not surprising that CtrA,
itself, is meticulously controlled throughout the cell cycle. It is controlled at the level
of stability, exhibiting increases in degradation at key points. az cap_19_3
Phosphoryl transfer from CckA to ChpT to CtrA ceases, preventing CtrA phosphorylation
Phosphoryl transfer from CckA to ChpT to CpdR also ceases, leading to decreased CpdRP levels and relieving inhibition of CtrA proteolysis. molbiol
chegunegye proteolyze tavasote clpxp: This hypothesis was supported by the
identification of RcdA, a protein required for targeting CtrA
to the stalked pole in a ClpXP-dependent fashion; rcdA mutants
have stabilized CtrA levels (160). However, recent in vitro
evidence demonstrates that purified ClpXP efficiently degrades
purified CtrA, and addition of purified RcdA has no effect on
proteolysis, suggesting that RcdA is not an adaptor protein
(33). The function of RcdA in CtrA proteolysis in vivo remains
unknown.
CckA: an essential hybrid histidine kinase
(101). CckA is membrane bound, but it has no periplasmic
sensing domain and has a receiver domain. CckA is present
throughout the cell cycle but becomes localized predominantly
to the swarmer cell pole in predivisional cells. Depletion of
CckA leads to decreased CtrA phosphorylation and some CtrA
destabilization (100, 101). The presence of a receiver domain
suggests that CckA may utilize a phosphorelay, and indeed it
was found that after autophosphorylation CckA transfers the
phosphoryl group to an Hpt protein, ChpT (14). ChpT has two
phosphoryl acceptors: CtrA and the aforementioned CpdR.
CpdR is inactive for targeting ClpXP when phosphorylated
(96). Therefore, when CckA is active, it activates CtrA by
phosphorylation and prevents CtrA degradation by inactivating
CpdR. Conversely, at the time of DNA replication initiation,
CckA is deactivated, CtrA and CpdR are no longer phosphorylated,
and this leads to CtrA deactivation by lack of
phosphorylation combined with proteolysis. CckA is active
during the mid- to late predivisional cell stage, coincident with
CtrA activity (100).
az microbiol.mol.biol
G1 to S transition or SW to ST transition are interchangably used for this purpose.
However, it is not correct. both these two terms happens at the same time so they are genetically distinct.
It is only in recent years that some laboratories
have returned to the parental CB15 strain and included
holdfast production in developmental analyses.
It has been known for more than 40
years that stalks increase their length in response to phosphate
starvation (211, 212). Phosphate starvation in E. coli causes the
PhoR histidine kinase to autophosphorylate and then pass the
phosphoryl group to the response regulator PhoB, increasing
its affinity for the cis element pho box (143, 144, 266). PhoBP
binding increases transcription of the Pho regulon, including
the high-affinity phosphate transport system pstSCAB. In addition
to phosphate transport, PstSCAB proteins are thought
to form a complex with PhoR in the presence of excess phosphate
and to repress the Pho regulon (268); mutations in pst
genes cause constitutive activation of the Pho regulon (267).
Three lines of evidence
indicate that the holdfast is composed principally of polysaccharide.
First, the holdfast can be stained using fluoresceinconjugated
wheat germ agglutinin, which specifically binds Nacetylglucosamine
(162). Treatment with lysozyme, which is
known to degrade N-acetylglucosamine polymers, increases
the elasticity of the holdfast by 90% but it does not destroy the
holdfast, suggesting that there are other components of the
holdfast or that some of the glucosidic linkages are resistant to
lysozyme (138). Second, many mutations that abolish holdfast
production are found in genes that are predicted to encode
polysaccharide biosynthesis machinery, including oligosaccharide
synthesis (163, 250) and export (229). Third, the holdfast
was observed to have physical properties of a polysaccharide
gel by atomic force microscopy (138).
Another intriguing aspect of the holdfast is its binding promiscuity.
C. crescentus cells have been observed to attach via
the holdfast to such diverse surfaces as plastic, Teflon, other
bacterial cells, and even gold particles (182, 190; E.
Quardokus, unpublished data). It seems that there is very little
that the holdfast cannot attach to, except C. crescentus cells. In
monocultures of C. crescentus, stalked cells are observed to
gather into aggregates wherein the holdfasts of each cell bind
to each other, forming the characteristic “rosette”
az http://2014.igem.org/Team:USTC-China/project/cimager
fmr310
Estimates of endospore longevity range from thousands to millions of years, although it is more likely on the lower end of that range; a number of factors are responsible for this robustness including dehydration of the spore core and compaction of chromosomal DNA
Most types of bacteria cannot change to the endospore form.
These cellular responses are not uniform, even in an isogenic culture.
az site sporeweb
axe spore : fmr310 bekhunesh
errington2003 ham khube
On a practical basis, the ability to produce resistant spores enables many organisms
to survive autoclaving, radiation, or chemical processes for the preservation of foods or
sterilization of material for medical procedures. Great care must be taken to establish
the conditions required for their elimination. Concerted efforts to understand the
developmental and regulatory factors governing sporulation may provide insights into
other developmental processes in higher forms.
az cap 19
extracellular differentiation factor
citrate- lowering extracellular pH and chelating metal ions az: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC93804/
pheromone is governed
by spoOA, spoOB, and spoOH.
At this point, the sporulation gene program splits and two distinct programs become
active: one in the mother cell and the other in the forespore. The mother cell produces
certain proteins that are incorporated into the developing spore from the outside, and
the forespore generates other proteins that complete the process by being added from
the inside.
az cap 19
abrB sigma H ro mahar mikone
The sensor kinases KinA,
KinB, and KinC autophosphorylate on a histidine. Phosphate is transferred to SpoOF, then to
SpoOB, and finally to SpoOA. Low levels of SpoOA∼P are sufficient to repress transcription of
abrB, derepressing expression of many of the stationary-phase response pathways negatively
regulated by AbrB. Higher levels of SpoOA∼P stimulate axial filament formation, polar
septation, and transcription of genes (e.g., spoIIA, spoIIE, and spoIIG) required for cell
type–specific gene expression.
The experimental results
suggest that a threshold level of activated SpoOA (SpoOA∼P) induces sporulation gene
Genes that are under the
apparent control of SpoOA cause the site of formation of the FtsZ ring to shift from
midcell to polar sites as discussed further below.
Many stationary-phase genes are under the control of σH (SpoOH). This transcription
factor is weakly expressed from a σA promoter in midlogarithmic phase but is
greatly increased after the initiation of sporulation. Among the various genes controlled
by σH is the sporulation-specific operon spoIIA, which produces the important σF.
Both ftsA and ftsZ are transcribed from a distinct promoter, p2 (ftsAp2), during
sporulation but not during exponential growth. Transcription from p2 is dependent on
RNA polymerase containing σH but does not require expression of other sporulation
loci
SpoIIE with FtsZ and is involved in the SpoOA-dependent switch in the positioning of FtsZ
rings from midcell to polar locations.
Two proteins involved in chromosome partitioning, Soj (ParA) and SpoOJ (ParB),
also appear to be involved in regulating the initiation of sporulation in response to
chromosome structure or partitioning.
see http://www.microbiologytext.com/index.php?module=Book&func=displayarticle&art_id=69
ax jadval az cap_19
jozveye esaiili va hatman cap-19 ro bekhun
axe khub dar sonenshein 2000 ham hast
Phosphorelay regulatory network leading to the formation of spores in B. subtilis. Upon nutrient starvation or decoyinine addition, two major sensor kinases (KinA and KinB) undergo autophosphorylation. In addition, three minor sensor kinases (KinC, KinD, and KinE) are considered to be involved in the phosphorylation of Spo0F (2). However, it was recently reported that not only KinC but also KinD and KinE are unlikely to be involved in this phosphorylation (3, 4). KinA∼P and KinB∼P provide phosphate input to the master transcriptional regulator, Spo0A, yielding Spo0A∼P via two additional regulators, i.e., the phosphorylated forms of Spo0F and Spo0B (Spo0F∼P and Spo0B∼P). Spo0A∼P becomes a positive or negative regulator for sporulation genes, including those for Spo0A itself, Spo0F, and the transition state transcription regulator AbrB. AbrB represses the transcription of the gene of σH, which is also essential for sporulation, as well as that of kinB. Thus, Spo0A∼P represses abrB, thereby stimulating σH synthesis. kinA is transcribed with RNAP possessing σH. As a result, the transcription of the genes for KinA, Spo0F, and Spo0A is triggered in a closed-loop system. The accumulation of Spo0A∼P and σH leads to the sigma cascade to form spores. The kinB gene is likely a target of CodY (5). The cell density is sensed by Phr peptides that are secreted, processed, and imported as pentapeptides back into the cell, where they inhibit the Rap proteins (RapA, RapB, and RapE) that cause dephosphorylation of Spo0F∼P. The phrA and phrE genes are CodY candidate targets (5). Spo0A∼P is susceptible to dephosphorylation through the action of Spo0E (6, 7) and two homologues, YisI and YnzD (8); expression of the last two proteins increases under nonsporulation conditions (8). Open and gray arrows and black arrows indicate forward and backward sporulation, respectively. az Expression of kinA and kinB of Bacillus subtilis, Necessary for Sporulation Initiation, Is under Positive Stringent Transcription Control
ax z http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fjb.asm.org%2Fcontent%2F195%2F8%2F1656%2FF1.large.jpg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fjb.asm.org%2Fcontent%2F195%2F8%2F1656%2FF1.expansion.html&h=1310&w=1800&tbnid=A8LHaVgxyGlV8M%3A&zoom=1&docid=TwmWMRy58Pc0dM&hl=en&ei=vPKKVNSxEoycgwSap4LYCA&tbm=isch&ved=0CCEQMygFMAU&iact=rc&uact=3&dur=560&page=1&start=0&ndsp=18
A vegetative hypha emerges from a germinating
spore and the hyphal filament grows by tip extension. Occasionally, cell division occurs and the
filament branches, which produces a thick network of hyphae, known as the substrate mycelium.
As local nutrients are depleted, a complex signalling cascade triggers the production of a
surfactant that coats some emerging filaments, which allows them to grow away from the
substrate. These aerial filaments are developmentally different from those of the substrate
mycelium. The unbranched cell at the ends of some of these aerial filaments differentiates. Each
cell divides synchronously at many sites along its length forming uninucleoid cells that further
develop into spores.
ax az http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnrmicro%2Fjournal%2Fv3%2Fn3%2Fimages%2Fnrmicro1096-f6.jpg&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnrmicro%2Fjournal%2Fv3%2Fn3%2Ffig_tab%2Fnrmicro1096_F6.html&h=406&w=539&tbnid=JdfJ8hNq5CkaZM%3A&zoom=1&docid=TwbmSLMRJS8-cM&ei=mQuLVLm2JoT_UpeDgTA&tbm=isch&ved=0CBwQMygAMAA&iact=rc&uact=3&dur=316&page=1&start=0&ndsp=17
synchronous, multiple
cell divisions
Only two direct σWhiG target genes are known: whiI and whiH
whil baese stop shodan spore msieh amma h na. h baes kharabish mishe
Previous studies described in the introduction have indicated that the sigma factor whiG (σwhiG), which orchestrates the transition from aerial hyphal growth to a sporulation-specific program, is expressed in all stages of growth but becomes active only during a short window early in the sporulation process. “σwhiG” indicates active WhiG; inactive WhiG is in brackets. The transcriptional regulator BldD is required to limit WhiG activity prior to sporulation, although the exact mechanism is not understood. Once active, WhiG directs the transcription of at least two sporulation factors, WhiI and WhiH, which themselves do not become active until later in sporulation. WhiA and the Fe-S cluster protein WhiB mutually regulate each other's expression, and WhiA is also required in vivo to activate its own sporulation-specific transcription. Two other factors—the ParAB and FtsZ genes—are required for hyphal chromosome segregation and septation, respectively. WhiA has been shown in vivo to be required for the sporulation-specific expression of both ParAB and FtsZ. Other sporulation factors required for the subsequent spore maturation include WhiD, WhiE and σF. As described in this paper and indicated with grey lines in the figure, WhiA physically binds to its own promoter and to the Parp2 promoter (i.e. sporulation-specific), consistent with a role in gene activation, and also binds to WhiG. WhiG activates expression of WhiA. A model consistent with those findings is that when WhiA accumulates, it binds to and inhibits WhiG activity, thereby forming a feedback loop that contributes to the inactivation of WhiG and itself. Other factors may also be required to fully limit WhiG activity. az :DNA recognition and transcriptional regulation by the WhiA sporulation factor
bekhun: flardh and...
synchronous, multiple
cell divisions
Only two direct σWhiG target genes are known: whiI and whiH
whil baese stop shodan spore msieh amma h na. h baes kharabish mishe
Previous studies described in the introduction have indicated that the sigma factor whiG (σwhiG), which orchestrates the transition from aerial hyphal growth to a sporulation-specific program, is expressed in all stages of growth but becomes active only during a short window early in the sporulation process. “σwhiG” indicates active WhiG; inactive WhiG is in brackets. The transcriptional regulator BldD is required to limit WhiG activity prior to sporulation, although the exact mechanism is not understood. Once active, WhiG directs the transcription of at least two sporulation factors, WhiI and WhiH, which themselves do not become active until later in sporulation. WhiA and the Fe-S cluster protein WhiB mutually regulate each other's expression, and WhiA is also required in vivo to activate its own sporulation-specific transcription. Two other factors—the ParAB and FtsZ genes—are required for hyphal chromosome segregation and septation, respectively. WhiA has been shown in vivo to be required for the sporulation-specific expression of both ParAB and FtsZ. Other sporulation factors required for the subsequent spore maturation include WhiD, WhiE and σF. As described in this paper and indicated with grey lines in the figure, WhiA physically binds to its own promoter and to the Parp2 promoter (i.e. sporulation-specific), consistent with a role in gene activation, and also binds to WhiG. WhiG activates expression of WhiA. A model consistent with those findings is that when WhiA accumulates, it binds to and inhibits WhiG activity, thereby forming a feedback loop that contributes to the inactivation of WhiG and itself. Other factors may also be required to fully limit WhiG activity. az :DNA recognition and transcriptional regulation by the WhiA sporulation factor
bekhun: flardh and...
ax az flardh.
tozihesham behun
a | Orchestration of cell-wall assembly and cell division. Aerial hyphae grow by tip extension and carry apical assemblies of
DivIVA. Formation of an apical sporogenic cell (which is often coiled and is typically longer than that shown in this
simplified schematic) involves the arrest of growth. FtsZ assembles into helical filaments, which are remodelled into the
regularly spaced Z rings that direct sporulation septation. After completion of septa, prespores assemble thick spore walls,
which requires the bacterial actin MreB. Initially, MreB localizes to the closing septa, but then spreads out around the
developing spore. b | Chromosome segregation. The ParA ATPase is first found at the tips of young aerial hyphae, and then
forms helical filaments along the sporogenic cell. ParB assembles into nucleoprotein complexes at the chromosomal oriC
regions. Distribution of such ParB–oriC foci along the sporogenic cell appears to be driven by ParA. Septal ingrowth starts
over unsegregated nuclear material, and the FtsK DNA translocase is targeted to division sites and helps to clear DNA
from the closing septa. Finally, the nucleoids condense in the maturing spores.
Chromosome segregation. The ParA ATPase is first found at the tips of young aerial hyphae, and then
forms helical filaments along the sporogenic cell. ParB assembles into nucleoprotein complexes at the chromosomal oriC
regions. Distribution of such ParB–oriC foci along the sporogenic cell appears to be driven by ParA. Septal ingrowth starts
over unsegregated nuclear material, and the FtsK DNA translocase is targeted to division sites and helps to clear DNA
from the closing septa. Finally, the nucleoids condense in the maturing spores.
This distribution of MreB–EGFP echoes the progression of spore-wall thickening, which appears to start near septa but then occurs all around the spore103
MreB has a role in Streptomyces spore-wall assembly, and
other phenotypic defects in mreB mutant spores may be
secondary effects of the altered spore envelope7.
Regulation of S. coelicolor development. In response to an
unknown signal within the growing substrate mycelium, BldG activates
transcription of the sigma factor, BldN. If BldD-mediated repression of BldN
transcription is released, the accessory sigma factor will direct transcription
of the response regulator BldM. BldM promotes aerial growth. WhiG, a
sigma factor present in aerial hyphae activates transcription of WhiH and
WhiI. WhiH and WhiI autoregulate their own promoters until such time, it is
surmised, growth stops. WhiA and WhiB might play a role in sensing when
growth slows. WhiH and WhiI then activate transcription of genes involved
in sporulation septation. From Chater (2000). az els
in their mode of synthesis, their chemical content and their resistance properties.
az ELS
ax az net begard
Upon encystment, this bacterium becomes non-motile. As in enteric
bacteria, motility in A. vinelandii occurs through the use of peritrichous flagella. az 1719
Cyst formation is induced by adverse environmental conditions, but can also be triggered under laboratory conditions by providing compounds like b-hydroxybutyrate or n-butanol as sole carbon sources in the growth medium.
AlgL is dispensable for germination (j.bacteriol)
http://www.pnas.org/content/103/16/6356.figures-only
A mature cyst consists of a contracted cell, known as the central body, which is surrounded by a capsule made up of a laminated outer layer called the exine and an inner layer called the intine.
The extracellular polysaccharide alginate is a major component of the exine and intine layers of the cyst (Sadoff, 1975) and is essential for the differentiation process; mutations in alginate biosynthetic genes impair the formation of cysts
alkylresorcinols, replace the phospholipids of the cyst membranes during differentiation and are components of the exine layer (Reusch & Sadoff, 1983). Alkylresorcinols play a structural role in the exine, as strains carrying mutations in alkylresorcinol biosynthetic genes produce cysts with a defective exine. However, despite the defective exine layer, the cysts remain resistant to desiccation
In the cytoplasm, vesicles containing
polyhydroxybutyrate as a carbon and energy reserve
accumulate, and on the outside of the cells a deposition of
coat material eventually leads to an encasement of the
cell, by formation of a layer designated the exine. In the
space between the exine and the cell wall a viscous
material, the intine, develops .
The exine is characterized by being
structured and rigid with alginates rich in GG block
sequences. The intine, in contrast, is less structured
and its alginates consist mostly of MG and MM blocks develops . az steigedal
In A. vinelandii, the sigma factor
AlgU participates in the encystment process by controlling
both alginate synthesis (Moreno et al., 1998) and the loss of
flagella that occurs upon cyst formation (Leo´n & Espı´n,
2008)
Mechanistically, AlgU promotes the transcription of
the algC gene, which is involved in alginate biosynthesis,
and cydR, which is involved in repressing transcription of
the flagella regulator FlhDC (Gaona et al., 2004; Leo´n &
Espı´n, 2008).
The sigma factor RpoS is a central regulator during
stationary phase in bacteria (for a recent review see
Navarro Llorens et al., 2010).
In Pseudomonas species,
which are phylogenetically closely related to A. vinelandii
(Setubal et al., 2009), RpoS regulates quorum sensing,
virulence and many stationary phase genes (Schuster et al.,
Transcription of
rpoS increases upon entry into stationary phase and is
activated by PsrA, a regulator of the TetR family
PsrA is required for maximal rpoS transcription
and binds to the rpoS promoter region
the level of activation of rpoS by PsrA
seems to be lower in A. vinelandii than in Pseudomonas
In the cyst-forming bacterium A. vinelandii, RpoS is
required for the activation of one of the three promoters
driving transcription of the alginate biosynthetic gene algD
(Castan˜eda et al., 2001), and for activation of one of the
two promoters of phbB, a gene involved in polyhydroxybutyrate
biosynthesi
However, inactivation
of psrA in A. vinelandii reduced transcription of rpoS by 60 %, whereas in Pseudomonas species psrA-null mutants
show an 80% reduction in rpoS promoter activity (Kojic &
Venturi, 2001). Thus, the level of activation of rpoS by PsrA
seems to be lower in A. vinelandii than in Pseudomonas.
We therefore
conclude that although PsrA positively activates rpoS
expression, the psrA mutant produced a level of RpoS
protein that allowed encystment and alkylresorcinol
synthesis, although to a reduced level.
A single promoter driving transcription of rpoS has been
identified in Pseudomonas (Kojic et al., 2002). In contrast,
two transcription start sites were identified for the rpoS
gene in A. vinelandii. One of these promoters (Pr2) is
similar to the promoter identified in Pseudomonas; it is
located far upstream of the rpoS start codon within the
nlpD coding region and is close to the PsrA binding sites.
The differences observed in the level of regulation of rpoS
by PsrA between Pseudomonas and Azotobacter could be
related to the presence of a second promoter directing
transcription of rpoS in A. vinelandii. Additionally, the
difference in rpoS regulation might be related to the
requirement of RpoS for encystment in A. vinelandii, a
process not carried out by Pseudomonas species.
Mechanistically, AlgU promotes the transcription of
the algC gene, which is involved in alginate biosynthesis,
and cydR, which is involved in repressing transcription of
the flagella regulator FlhDC (Gaona et al., 2004; Leo´n &
Espı´n, 2008).
Under
non-desiccating solid-medium growth conditions, the
non-mucoid A. vinelandii strain UW136 remained viable
for 16.5 years, while its rpoS mutant strain remained viable
for only 10 months (Sandercock & Page, 2008).
When cells of the rpoS mutant strain CNS59
were induced to differentiate, the cysts completely lacked
the exine and intine layers and were unable to form
capsulated cyst cells. Consistent with this observation, rpoS
mutant cysts were unable to resist desiccation.
In P. aeruginosa, PsrA has roles as an activator of rpoS
(Kojic & Venturi, 2001) and as an auto-repressor (Kojic
et al., 2002). This study showed that, similarly, in A.
vinelandii PsrA also has a dual role as an activator of rpoS
expression and as an auto-repressor.
We investigated the involvement of the sigma factor
RpoS in cyst formation in A. vinelandii. We analysed the transcriptional regulation of the rpoS
gene by PsrA, the main regulator of rpoS in Pseudomonas species, which are closely related to
vinelandii. (1685.full)
alkylresorcinols, which replace the phospholipids of the
cyst membranes during differentiation and are components
of the exine layer
Alkylresorcinols
play a structural role in the exine, as strains carrying
mutations in alkylresorcinol biosynthetic genes produce
cysts with a defective exine. However, despite the defective
exine layer, the cysts remain resistant to desiccation
hame az 1685.full
CydR is a homologue of Fnr. In A. vinelandii, CydR has
been shown to act as a repressor of the cydAB genes
encoding cytochrome bd, which is required for aerotolerant
nitrogen fixation (Wu et al., 2000). The loss of flagella
and nitrogen fixation activity observed upon induction of
encystment (Sadoff, 1975; Hitchins & Sadoff, 1973) can
now be explained by the negative effect of CydR on
expression of the cydAB and flhDC genes. 1719
Cyanobacteria use two mechanisms to separate these activities: a biological circadian clock to separate them temporally, and multicellularity and cellular differentiation to separate them spatially
az cold spring harb
For example, the unicellular
Cyanothece sp. strain ATCC 51142 stores
glycogen during the day and fixes nitrogen at
night (Toepel et al. 2008), whereas the filamentous
Trichodesmium erythraeum IMS101 fixes
nitrogen during the day in groups of specialized
cells (Sandh et al. 2009).
ax az trends in microbiology volume 20
matn az cold spring harb
Heterocysts are typically distinguishable from vegetative cells:
larger
rounder shape
diminished pigmentation
thicker cell envelopes
prominent cyanophycin granules at poles adjacent to vegetative cells
The additional envelope layers surrounding
heterocysts help to protect the enzyme nitrogenase
from oxygen
hame az cold sping harb
Nitrogenase, sequestered within these cells, transforms dinitrogen into ammonium at the expense of ATP and reductant—both generated by carbohydrate metabolism, a process that is supplemented, in the light, by the activity of PS I. Carbohydrate, probably in the form of sucrose, is synthesized in vegetative cells and moves into heterocysts. In return, nitrogen fixed in heterocysts moves into the vegetative cells, at least in part in the form of amino acids. az wiki
cold sprin
va
Photosynthetic C fixation through the Calvin cycle (CC) occurs in the vegetative cells and could lead to Suc and glycogen biosynthesis. Heterocysts act as an important sink for carbohydrates from vegetative cells and as a source of fixed N (Wolk et al., 1994). In heterocysts, which could also synthesize glycogen and Suc, the reductants for N2 and O2 reduction are generated by the activity of the oxidative pentose-P cycle (OPPC), the NADPH heterocyst-specific ferrodoxin, and respiratory electron transport (RET), as well as the ATP synthesis by cyclic phosphorylation (PSI). Suc enzymes are indicated as (1) SuS; (2) A/N-Inv; (3A) SPS-A; (3B) SPS-B; and (4) SPP. αKG, α-Ketoglutarate. az http://www.plantphysiol.org/content/143/3/1385/F8.expansion
in va badi az http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.cell.com/cms/attachment/586014/4444749/gr1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.cell.com/AJHG/fulltext/S0966-842X(07)00128-X&h=428&w=813&tbnid=gITK9mGkg9CpBM:&zoom=1&docid=baYaFDGHB99A6M&ei=XoKRVJzeLIrzUuDagdgG&tbm=isch
combined nitrogen
such as ammonium or nitrate inhibits the
differentiation of heterocysts
An artificial analog of
2-oxoglutarate, 2,2-difluoropentanoic acid, DFPA,
added to medium resulted in heterocyst development
even in the presence of ammonium
Nitrogenlimiting
conditions result in an increase in the
levels of 2-oxoglutarate showing that 2-oxoglutarate plays a key role in
controlling heterocyst development (Laurent
et al. 2005)..
NtcA is conserved in all cyanobacteria and regulates a number of genes involved in carbon and nitrogen metabolism
SigC may be
involved in regulating early heterocyst-specific
suggesting that SigE may be
involved in the expression of late heterocystspecific
genes such as the nif and hup genes
These
data suggest thatSigGis involvedin theexpression
of genes during the middle stages of differentiation
such as those involved in morphogenesis
and the creation of a microoxic environment,
and possibly genes that are necessary for commitment
to complete differentiation
The ntcA gene is
induced soon after nitrogen deprivation and
is autoregulated
Genes that are activated
by NtcA typically have the consensus binding
site TGTA-(N8)-TACAc entered at 241.5 nucleotides
upstream of the transcription start point
(TSP)
The DNA binding activity of NtcA is enhanced in the presence of 2-oxoglutarate, and 2-oxoglutarate is necessary for transcriptional activation by NtcA.
els 5763 bekhun
Additionally, DFPA, the synthetic analogue of
2-oxoglutarate, stimulatesDNAbinding activity
of NtcA in vitro (Laurent et al. 2005; Chen et al.
2006).
Model of regulatory interactions during heterocyst development. For clarity, the figure shows only
selected genes, proteins, and events. Open boxes represent genes and gray ovals represent proteins. Lines
ending in arrows and bars indicate positive and negative interactions, respectively. Dashed lines represent
indirect and/or unknown interactions or missing steps. Short arrows are between genes and their products.
See the text for details.
HetR is a master regulator of heterocyst
development and plays a key role in differentiation
and pattern formation
hetR is one of the earliest
genes induced in differentiating cells and is positively
autoregulated
Null mutants of hetR fail to
produce heterocysts, and overexpression of hetR
(Buikema and Haselkorn 1991a; Buikema and
Haselkorn 2001), and particular point mutants
(Khudyakov andGolden 2004) result in increased
heterocyst frequency.
Transcription of hetR
increases as early as 30 minutes after nitrogen deprivation,
and by 3.5 hours, expression is confined
to spaced foci arranged in a pattern similar to
that of differentiating cells.
HetR protein is a serine type protease that
has autoprotease activity and DNA binding
activity that requires formation of a HetR
homodimer
The heterocyst inhibitory peptide PatS
interferes with HetR DNA-binding activity in
vitro
Expression of ntcA and hetR show a mutual
dependency during heterocyst development
(Muro-Pastor et al. 2002). hetR is not induced
in an ntcA mutant and ntcA expression is transiently
induced in a HetR-dependent manner
NrrA, a response regulator, has been
identified as the regulatory link between NtcA
and HetR
nrrA is transcribed in differentiating cells within
3 hours after nitrogen deprivation and is
directly dependent on NtcA
An nrrA mutant strain
shows a delay in heterocyst development caused
by a delay in accumulation of HetR, and extra
copies of nrrA result in increased expression of
hetR, and thus, increased heterocyst frequency
The increase in Caþþ concentrations is
because of the decreased expression of ccbP,
which encodes a calcium sequestering protein,
CcbP. The increase in Caþþ in differentiating
cells is thought to be important for HetR’s
Caþþ-dependent serine protease and/or other
Caþþ-dependent proteolytic activities.
HetF influences heterocyst development
by a positive effect on hetR expression
In mutants of hetF, expression of hetR
was not localized to heterocysts and initiation of
heterocyst development was not seen (Wong
and Meeks 2001). Overexpression of hetF produces
amultiple-contiguous-heterocyst phenotype,
but only in the absence of combined
nitrogen
Like HetR,
HetF is likely to be a protease
Like hetF, patA also influences heterocyst
development via a positive effect on hetR expression,
but its effect is related to pattern formation
patA mutants form
heterocysts almost exclusively at the ends of filaments.
It is possible that PatA
influences heterocyst development by attenuating
the negative effects of the main inhibitory
signals of heterocyst pattern formation, PatS
and HetN
The hetC gene, which encodes a member of
the family of ATP-binding cassette type exporters,
is required for an early step in the differentiation
of heterocysts as observed by a PhetC-gfp
reporter, which showed an increase in expression
in proheterocysts and heterocysts
Two novel genes, hetL and asr1734, have
been shown to be involved in regulating heterocyst
development, but their exact roles and biochemical
functions remain unclear
Themiddle and later stages of heterocyst development
are distinguished by structural and physiological
changes. These changes begin with
morphogenesis of the heterocyst envelope by the
deposition of an outer polysaccharide layer and
an inner glycolipid layer,which decrease the entry
of oxygen into the heterocyst
DevR
and HepK, which comprise a two component
regulatory system, are involved in biosynthesis
of the polysaccharide layer
The heterocyst glycolipid layer is assembled
beneath the polysaccharide layer and is composed
of fatty alcohols glycosidically linked to
sugar residues. The hglB, hglC, hglD, and hglE
genes along with a cluster of nearby genes are
required for the synthesis of these glycolipids
(Campbell et al. 1997; Fan et al. 2005). DevH,
a trans-acting regulatory protein, is required
for the formation of the glycolipid layer, either
by directly regulating the expression of the genes
or indirectly through other gene products
(Fig. 5) (Ramirez et al. 2005). The hglK gene is
required for the localization of the glycolipids
and may be directly involved in their deposition
named hglT, is
predicted to encode a glycosyl transferase and is
required for the formation of the glycolipid
layer
Differentiation andmaturation of heterocysts
is dependent on DevBCA and HgdD, which are
thought to be a glycolipid exporter and outer
membrane efflux tunnel, respectively
cold spring ro bayad kamel bekhuni asan hichi be hichi
trends ro ham haminjur
ax az: http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fbiowiki.ucdavis.edu%2F%2540api%2Fdeki%2Ffiles%2F586%2Fdw1.gif%253Frevision%253D1&imgrefurl=http%3A%2F%2Fbiowiki.ucdavis.edu%2FMicrobiology%2FCase_Studies%2FCase_Study%253A_Unusual_microbes&h=186&w=416&tbnid=paFQh-irk0GPzM%3A&zoom=1&docid=OCMDDm5P9uyijM&ei=_g-MVLG_O8yyUYjPg9AC&tbm=isch&ved=0CBwQMygAMAA&iact=rc&uact=3&dur=306&page=1&start=0&ndsp=18
matn az claessen 2014
During vegetative growth, myxobacteria
form waves of cells that glide over
surfaces consuming nutrients and other prokaryotes. az els
Approximately 10% of the population develop into myxospores
in the interior of the fruiting body (Shimkets,
1999). Another 10% of the population differentiate into
peripheral rods which coat the exterior of the fruiting body.
This layer of quiescent bacteria may serve as a protective
coat for the developing myxospores. The remaining 80%
of the population dies during this developmental process.
Lysis of these cells provides abundant raw materials for the
developing fruiting body
the bacteria can grow with generation times as low as 3.5 hours. Even in the vegetative state, an
important aspect of myxobacterial growth involves cell-to-cell interactions that create
localized high cell densities. Myxobacteria, as a group, also excrete a wide assortment
of hydrolytic enzymes, allowing them to grow on a variety of macromolecules including
proteins, simple and complex polysaccharides, peptidoglycans, and nucleic acids. In addition, many myxobacteria produce a broad spectrum of antibiotics. Thus, like their closest relatives, the bdellovibrios, myxobacteria are capable of killing and lysing a
number of other bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. az cap_19
During growth, myxobacteria move as a coordinated assembly of cells to prey on other microorganisms or to feed on organic biopolymers by secreting hydrolytic enzymes that degrade target cells and biopolymers41. Two processes have evolved to increase the efficiency of this process. First, the simultaneous germination of spores from a fruiting body ensures that foraging cells are at the high densities that are needed to maximize growth rates26. As vegetative cells feed by cooperatively secreting proteolytic enzymes, their growth rate correlates with the concentration of these enzymes and thus with cell density26. Second, during social foraging, cells organize into a rippling pattern comprised of cells assembled into ridge-like structures that are separated by troughs of low cell density
however, in genotypically diverse aggregates, which can arise from mutations, the indirect benefits of self-sacrifice are reduced36. az claessen
tra a va bacteriocin jaleeeebbbbbb
Self–non-self recognition in M. xanthus was recently found to be determined by a highly polymorphic cell surface-associated protein, TraA54.
Spores promote survival during periods of starvation and abiotic stress
are capable of dispersing to unexploited resource patches
peripheral rods) are capable of growth in nutrient-limited conditions, which are insufficient to induce the germination of spores48
for the other cell types
az claessen2014
Fruiting body formation is induced by the stringent response, which is initiated by accumulation of the alarmone (p)ppGpp and is regulated by complex signal transduction pathways, including several two-component systems, Ser/Thr protein kinases and intercellular signals44. This complex regulation results in temporally coordinated changes in motility and gene expression, with genes being turned on or off at specific time points during development44 az claessen2014
10% of cells differentiate into spores; 30% of cells differentiate into peripheral rods that remain on the exterior of the fruiting body45; and the remaining cells undergo PCD46,47. az haman
Entry into either a stationary phase or the developmental
stage is a biologically costly process for myxobacteria, since both are accompanied by a
considerable loss in viable cells. Thus, the choice to enter into the developmental stage
is not automatic. It is only when the three conditions az cap 19
In a process not completely
understood but involving cell-signaling mechanisms and cell-to-cell interactions, cells
begin to aggregate, forming aggregation centers. Interestingly, aggregation coincides
with an extensive loss of viable cells in the population due to lysis in a process called
developmental autolysis. The surviving cells go on to form myxospores and fruiting
bodies. When conditions become favorable once again, the myxospores can germinate
to produce metabolically active, highly motile, vegetative cells. az haman
ax az: http://cshperspectives.cshlp.org/content/2/8/a000380/F2.expansion.html
Life cycle of M. xanthus. Scanning electron micrographs of (a) a lone cell under vegetative growth conditions, (b) a myxospore, (c) cells
migration to a fruiting body and (d) a mature fruiting body structure. Bars: (A, B), 1 mm; (C, D), 20 mm. From Shimkets (1999). az els
Six EBPs form a four-step cascade (Caberoy
et al. 2010) that responds to starvation and Asignal
bodies, C-signaling activates
FruA, a developmentally important response
regulator (Ellehauge et al. 1998).
Simultaneously, expression of the C-signal is
increased by a positive feedback loop involving
the act operon (Gronewold and Kaiser 2001).
Because of the positive feedback, there is a progressive
increase in the cell surface level of Csignal.
The five proteins of the act operon
increase expression of the csgA gene (Gronewold
and Kaiser 2007). At the start of development,
there are few C-signal molecules per cell.
produced. Higher levels of
C-signal induce higher levels of FruA
2004). The
threshold level of FruA stops the oscillation
by placing all the FrzE in its nonphosphorylated
state (
There being no more
signal to reverse, the cells continue to move in
the direction they were moving before their
last C-signaling event. This transition in cell
reversal behavior is also observed in the tracks
of individual cells (Jelsbak and Søgaard-Andersen
2002). The transition leads the cells to form
streams; cells trapped in a stream are able to
enlarge an aggregate.
az Myxobacteria, Polarity, and Multicellular
Morphogenesis
ax paiini az http://www.pnas.org/content/97/16/9098/F3.expansion.html
Because more than 30
new proteins must be made for aggregation
and sporulation (Inouye et al. 1979), some
capacity to synthesize proteins must be retained,
and the population must start fruiting
body construction before any essential nutrient
has been totally depleted.
Choosing between
growing (probably with the hope of finding
more nutrient soon) and fruiting body development
is helped by a diffusible cell-to-cell signal,
the A-signal (
A-signal molecules,
purified from medium conditioned by developing
cells, proved to be a set of amino acids and
peptides containing those amino acids (Kuspa
et al. 1986; Kuspa et al. 1992a). EachMyxococcus
cell that senses nutrient limitation and opts fordevelopment releases a small quantity of A-signal
about two hours after it senses that starvation is
immanent. az cold spring harb
development releases a small quantity of A-signal
about two hours after it senses that starvation is
immanent. Consequently the extracellular concentration
of A-signal is directly proportional to
the density of M. xanthus cells that have chosen
development (Kaplan and Plamann 1996; Kuspa
et al. 1992b). Cells in the population respond to
A-signal only if its concentration is above a
threshold. Cells respond by expressing a set of
A-signal-dependent genes that include spi, csgA
(the gene encoding C-signal), and fruA, an
important developmental response regulator. A
response to A-signal indicates that there are
enough cells to complete one fruiting body
development. Limitation for any amino
acid, lack of carbon source, or too little phosphate
induces M. xanthus to initiate fruiting body
development (Manoil and Kaiser 1980a; Manoil
and Kaiser 1980b). Neither the lack of purines
nor of pyrimidines, which M. xanthus scavenges
from prey nucleic acids, will induce development
(Kimsey and Kaiser 1991). This suggests that a
deficiency of any amino-acylated tRNA leads
the population of cells to stop swarming and to
initiate development. In M. xanthus as in many
other bacteria, the absence or shortage of any
one of the charged tRNAs leads a ribosome,
sensing with a codon that lacks its cognate amino
acylated tRNA, to synthesize guanosine tetra
(and penta) phosphate, (p)ppGpp, in a reaction
catalyzed by the relA synthase.
The rise in
(p)ppGpp sets off a stringent response that
stops the synthesis of new ribosomes and of peptidoglycan
(Cashel et al. 1996). In M. xanthus
the stringent response also initiates expression
of its developmentally regulated genes. Singer
et al. showed that the accumulation of (p)ppGpp
was both necessary and sufficient to trigger
fruiting body development (Singer and Kaiser
1995). In B. subtilis and in E. coli DNA synthesis
is arrested by their stringent responses. By
contrast, M. xanthus chromosome replication
continues during development induced by the
stringent response, and fruiting bodymyxospores
contain two complete copies of the chromosome
(Tzeng et al. 2006). A complete description of
these processes can be found in (Diodati et al.
2008).
When (p)ppGpp arrests growth,
outward spreading stops. Then cells migrate
inward causing many traffic jams some of which
become foci for aggregation (Kaiser and Welch
2004). Morphogenesis of M. xanthus fruiting
bodies at the centers is directed by C-signaling
between cells. C-signal deficient mutants (csgA)
were found to grow normally but not to aggregate
or sporulate (Hagen et al. 1978; Kim and
Kaiser 1990b; Shimkets et al. 1983). The Csignal
is a 17-kDa cell-surface-bound protein
that communicates when pairs of cells make
an end-to-end contact with each other
The complete C-signaling circuit shown in Figure
6 was worked out from the properties of
gene knockout mutants that lack circuit elements,
and more detail can be found in a recent
review (Søgaard-Andersen 2008).
FruA, a developmentally important response
regulator
The five proteins of the act operon
increase expression of the csgA gene
As the number of C-signal molecules per cell
rises, their signaling elevates the cytoplasmic
level of FruA (Fig. 6) to a threshold
az Myxobacteria, Polarity, and Multicellular
Morphogenesis
It is a group behavior that requires the cells to reach a certain cell number before the process is initiated.
The
slime layer is thought to extract water from the agar and
keeps the cells in a moist environment.
Furthermore, swarmers
are often elongated as a result of the suppression of
cell division.
(a) P. mirabilis, (b) P. aeruginosa, (c) R. etli, (d) S. marcescens, (e) S. Typhimurium and (f) E. coli. az verstraeten2008
ax az : http://jb.asm.org/content/195/2/368.full
matn: belas 2014
In P. mirabilis, swarming migration involves the differentiation
of short, motile vegetative cells with a few peritrichous
flagella into multinucleate aseptate swarmer cells
of 20–40 times the vegetative cell length and with a more
than 50-fold higher surface density of flagella (az verstraten)
Because
P. mirabilis is a gram-negative, peritrichously flagellated
bacteria that expresses flagella in undifferentiated vegetative
cells, Belas and colleagues proposed that inhibition of
flagella rotation was a physical signal for swamer cell
differentiation az j.1574
Agar surfaces, viscous liquids, and antibodies specific to flagellar proteins, such as flagellin, all induce differentiation and are thought to increase torque on the motor
Cell density is centrally important in swarming and a
critical cell mass is necessary to initiate and sustain the
swarming process. verstraeten etli [7].
Peptides or amino acids are suggested to have a
signaling function in P. mirabilis [6]. In addition to quorum
sensing, cell density has also been proposed to account for
the sufficient slime accumulation that is needed for spreading.
hame az belas 2014
umo : upregulator of flagellar master operon
10-fold at a time point approximately 3–4 h after cells have been plated. Then, after 6–7 h of growth, the levels decrease significantly during the process of consolidation.
the levels of flhDC expression increase 10-fold and FlhD2C2 activates the promoters for Class 2 genes in the
flagellar cascade that encode the flagellar basal body and hook proteins and the sigma factor s28 (Claret & Hughes,
2000). The expression of s28 allows RNA polymerase to transcribe the Class 3 genes, which include genes required
for flagellar assembly and the flagellin structural gene, designated flaA in P. mirabilis (
FliL is hypothesized to sense the torque that is applied to the basal body and motor components when the flagellar
motor stalls when faced with high-viscosity environments (az verstraten)
P. mirabilis FliL uniquely displays viscosity-dependent functions, indicating that the protein has a direct role in the surface-sensing pathway [53]. FliL defects affect the induction of swarming-dependent proteins [69] and prevent viscosity-dependent sensing of surfaces and viscosity-dependent transcription [53]. Notable among the genes affected by FliL defects is umoA. Increased expres-sion of umoA is apparent in P. mirabilis fliL-knockout mutations, including strains in which only the CTD of FliL is mutated [53]. This implicates the periplasmic domain of FliL in surface sensing. The pathway leading from FliL to UmoA is unknown,
Evidence includes the observation that, when placed on solid surfaces, cells with mutations in waaL (rfaL), encoding O-antigen ligase, and wzz (cld), encoding a chain-length determinant for O antigen, do not activate flhDC and the flagellar gene cascade [72]. It is believed that loss of O-antigen or perturbation of LPS composition or structure creates cell envelope stress, which is sensed by the Rcs phosphorelay regulatory circuit [73]. The enteric bacterial Rcs phosphorelay is more compli-cated than the canonical two-component system; it is a phosphorelay that consists of the outer membrane activa-tor protein RcsF, the hybrid sensor kinase RcsC, the histidine phosphotransferase RcsD, the response regulator RcsB, and the transcription factor RcsA. Via an unknown mechanism, RcsF senses signals external to the cell and relays that information through the outer membrane to RcsC, which initiates the phospho-cascade. The result is phosphorylated RcsB [54]. In complex with RcsA, phos-phorylated RcsB binds a DNA site downstream of the flhDC promoter, inhibiting transcription [74]. Mutations in P. mirabilis RcsD result in precocious swarming (that is, swarming motility initiates earlier than in the wild type) and a pseudoswarmer phenotype, implicating the Rcs pathway in surface sensing [75]. Work by the Rather laboratory has implicated two other proteins, UmoB and UmoD, in the pathway that leads from the external signals to the sensor kinase RcsC [72,73]. The four Umo (upregulator of the master operon) proteins (UmoA–D) are associated with the cell envelope [76]. They were discovered in a search for suppressors of the swarming defect that results from mutation in the flgN flagellar chap-erone, and increase transcription of flhDC [76]. The UmoB homolog, yrfF (encoding IgaA), is involved in the Rcs signal transduction pathway of Salmonella and Serratia marcescens [63,77]. The homolog of UmoD is E. coli ycfJ, a gene of unknown function that is upregulated in E. coli biofilms [78].
Figure 5 depicts a potential model of surface contact and sensing that integrates the flagellar mechanosensor and accounts for LPS and O-antigen involvement in Rcs-de-pendent regulation of flhDC transcription [73]. In this model, FliL, which is part of the flagellar mechanosensor pathway [53], interacts with the Umo proteins, probably UmoA. Surface contact interactions with LPS and/or O-antigen trigger conformational changes in the outer mem-brane that result in decreased activity of RcsF and/or increased activity of UmoD. This results in activation of UmoB by two mechanisms, direct activation by UmoD and reduced activity of RcsF, an inhibitor of UmoB [73].
The activated form of UmoB then inhibits the Rcs phosphor-elay, resulting in reduced levels of phosphorylated RcsB and derepression of the flhDC operon. Thus, P. mirabilis may have two mechanisms to sense a surface: a flagellar mechanosensor and a surface contact sensor working through the Rcs stress response to activate flhDC.
ax az armbruster 2012 (azin box 2 ro bekhun)
Conditions that inhibit flagellar rotation induce surface-dependent swarmer cell differentiation mediated by FliL, a flagellar protein thought to be associated with the MotAB stator. The role played by FliL is unknown, but it may empower the motor, perhaps through modulating ion flow. The signal mediated through FliL involves UmoA, which upregulates flhDC, encoding the flagellar master regulator, FlhD4C2, the activity of which is required for swarming and swarmer cell differentiation. A second nonflagellar mechanosensing circuit has been proposed that senses cell wall stress or perturbations through lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and O-antigen changes, mediated by WaaL, UmoD, and UmoB. Both mechanosensors are likely to control the activity of the Rcs regulatory circuit, which in turn inhibits flhDC expression. Abbreviations: IM, inner (or cytoplasmic) membrane; OM, outer membrane; PG, peptidoglycan. Unbroken lines indicate inte
signals.
In P. mirabilis, the inactivation of the speA or speB
genes, which are encoding proteins involved in putrescine
biosynthesis, results in delayed swarmer cell differentiation.
Exogenous putrescine abolishes this delay, indicating
that it acts as an extracellular signal for swarming
[38]. The disA gene, which is predicted to encode an amino
acid decarboxylase, was initially identified in a screening
for suppressor mutations restoring the speA swarming
phenotype [39]. However, a disA mutation also increased
swarming in a wild-type background. The inactivation of
disA strongly affected flagellar class II and III gene expression.
Based on tests with different decarboxylated amino
acids, it is proposed that such a compound inhibits the
assembly and/or activity of FlhDC. az verstraeten
colony. P. mirabilis produces an acidic capsular
polysaccharide, named Cmf (colony migration factor),
which stabilizes cell–cell contacts and acts as a lubricant,
extracting water from the agar medium
general role in sensing envelope stress and osmolarity.
RcsCDB, a three-component His-Asp phosphorelay system,
positively regulates the production of colanic acid
and negatively controls swarming, swimming motility
and virulence. Colanic acid contributes to the complex
three-dimensional architecture of E. coli biofilms, and
overproduction inhibits swarming in S. Typhimurium
[41]. The inhibition of swarming is probably the consequence
of RcsB negatively regulating expression of the
flhDC operon
example, colanic acid contributes to biofilm structure but
inhibits swarming in Enterobacteriaceae species.
signals.
In P. mirabilis, the inactivation of the speA or speB
genes, which are encoding proteins involved in putrescine
biosynthesis, results in delayed swarmer cell differentiation.
Exogenous putrescine abolishes this delay, indicating
that it acts as an extracellular signal for swarming
[38]. The disA gene, which is predicted to encode an amino
acid decarboxylase, was initially identified in a screening
for suppressor mutations restoring the speA swarming
phenotype [39]. However, a disA mutation also increased
swarming in a wild-type background. The inactivation of
disA strongly affected flagellar class II and III gene expression.
Based on tests with different decarboxylated amino
acids, it is proposed that such a compound inhibits the
assembly and/or activity of FlhDC. az verstraeten
colony. P. mirabilis produces an acidic capsular
polysaccharide, named Cmf (colony migration factor),
which stabilizes cell–cell contacts and acts as a lubricant,
extracting water from the agar medium
general role in sensing envelope stress and osmolarity.
RcsCDB, a three-component His-Asp phosphorelay system,
positively regulates the production of colanic acid
and negatively controls swarming, swimming motility
and virulence. Colanic acid contributes to the complex
three-dimensional architecture of E. coli biofilms, and
overproduction inhibits swarming in S. Typhimurium
[41]. The inhibition of swarming is probably the consequence
of RcsB negatively regulating expression of the
flhDC operon
example, colanic acid contributes to biofilm structure but
inhibits swarming in Enterobacteriaceae species.