CCTO.

6. DEVELOPMENT
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7. DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
- A normative term, which at various times has meant:
a.Economic growth
b.structural economic change,
c. autonomous industrialization,
d.capitalism or socialism,
e.self-actualization,
f. and individual, national, regional and cultural self-
reliance
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8. DEFINITION OF GOVERNMENT DURING THE WWII PEROID
Development – in terms of a long-term view with an
emphasis on socio-economic structural transformation.
However, since the 1990s development has come to be
defined with a shorter horizon related to policy objectives
and performance indicators.
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9. MOST COMPREHENSIVE DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
As defined by Todaro,
“Development – is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a
multi-dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation
of entire economic and social system.”
Development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with
three equally important aspects.
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10. 1.Raising peoples’ living levels
2.Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-
esteem through the establishment of social, political and
economic systems and institutions which promote human
dignity and respect
3.Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range
of their choice variables
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DEVELOPMENT
- an “event constituting a new stage or a changing situation”
- is implicitly intended as something positive or desirable.
- usually means improvement, either in the general situation
of the system, or in some of its constituent elements when
referring to a society or to a socio-economic system

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The word “develop” “has come from an
Italian word “voluper” meaning to unwrap or
unfold.
The definition of ‘development’ has been
always controversial over time.

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Development can be defined as the process of
economic and social transformation that is
based on complex cultural and environmental
factors and their interactions.

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Thomas (2000) explains three ways the word ‘development’ is used.
1.Development as a vision: a vision or description of how a desirable
society should be.
2.Development as a historical process: social change that takes place
over long periods of time due to inevitable processes.
3.Development as action: deliberate efforts to change things for the
better and to ensure a better standard of living.
To Prof. Yogindra Singh: “Development is a strategy of planned social
change which is considered desirable by the members of a society.”

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1. CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Development is a continuous process.
- The process of development continues from the moment of inception of the society.
2. Development follows a pattern.
- Development occurs in an orderly manner and follows a certain sequence
3. Development has a direction.
- the process of development follows a definite direction.
- the direction is always forward and never backward.
4. Development can be evolutionary or revolutionary in nature
- Development when occurs in a slow and gradual manner it is said to be evolutionary in character.
Evolutionary development - takes its natural course, time and in not very spectacular in nature.
Revolutionary development - refers to the abrupt and rapid change in the society.

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5. Development is multidimensional
- has to be multidimensional touching various aspects of the society. So that it can become better
yielding in nature. It should not confine itself to the economic dimension, but should have its
political, cultural and social dimensions, too.
6. Development is universal, but not uniform
- Development is a common process witnessed by every society however primitive or modern it is.
Every society witnesses the process of development in some form or the other.
7. Development insists upon adaptability
- process of development demands the existing institutions to change and adapt to the upcoming
demands to fulfil the emerging needs of the individuals.
8. Development stands for dynamism
- the concept of development is against the notion of static. Development necessarily entails change.

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9. Development is irreversible
- Development as a process is always forward looking and has no look back.
10. Development is diffusive
- Development never remains concentrated in the place of its origin. It has a natural tendency to
spread beyond its place of origin.
11. Development always has positive yields
- the outcomes of development are always positive. It is for the betterment of the society.
12. Development has got its qualitative and quantitative connotations
- Development as a process can be judged through the qualitative improvement human conditions of
living. Similarly when there is a quantum lift or there is an increase in number of some institution,
then also we feel the impact of development.
- Thus the qualitative aspects of development are felt while the quantitative aspects of development
are observed.

18. 2. PERSPECTIVE ON DEVELOPMENT
Development as a concept can be discussed from various perspectives.
They are:
1. ‘Development’ as a long term process of structural societal transformation.
2. ‘Development’ as a short-to-medium term outcome of desirable targets.
3. ‘Development ‘as a dominant ‘discourse’ of western modernity.
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1. ‘Development’ as a long term process of structural societal
transformation
The first conceptualization is that ‘development’ is a process of
structural societal change.
Thomas (2000, 2004) refers to this meaning of development as
‘a process of historical change’. This view, of ‘structural
transformation’ and ‘long-term transformations of economies
and societies’

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The key characteristics of this perspective are that:
• It is focused on processes of structural societal change.
• It is historical.
• It has a long-term outlook.
When there is development in the economy, there is a change in
the social institutions like:
• family,
• marriage,
• education,
• system of stratification in the society.

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2. ‘Development ‘as a short-to-medium term outcome of desirable
targets
A second perspective on ‘development’ can be seen in the light of
some targeted goals and their degree of achievements.
Thomas (2000, 2004) characterizes this second approach as ‘a vision or
measure of progressive change’ and Gore (2000) relates it to
‘performance assessment’.
It is focused on the outcomes of change so that it has a relatively
short-term outlook.

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3. ‘Development’ as a dominant ‘discourse’ of western modernity
This is the ‘post-modern’ conceptualization of development. It is also
referred to as the ‘post-development’, ‘post-colonial’ or ‘post-
structuralism’ development perspective.
This third perspective emerged as a reaction to the deliberate efforts at
progress made in the name of development since World War II and was
triggered in particular by the 1949 Declaration by the US President
Truman.
“We must embark on a bold new program for making the benefits of our
scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement
and growth of underdeveloped areas.”

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The discourse and strategy of
development produced its opposite:
• massive underdevelopment
• impoverishment,
• untold exploitation
• oppression

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The western development model was
super imposed on the Third world
countries with a:
• top down approach,
• ethnocentric, and
• technocratic approach.

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3. The Third World: Overview of a Contested Nation
“Third World“ - was coined by economist Alfred Sauvy in 1952.
- The term gained widespread popularity during the Cold War when
many poorer nations adopted the category to describe themselves as
neither being aligned with the West (NATO – North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) or the East (USSR-United Socialist Soviet Republic) after
World War II, but instead composing a non-aligned "third world".
“The Global South” – developing countries, least developed countries

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Africa, Latin America, and Asia
Third World countries are those that display
economic, social, political, and environmental
issues such as: high poverty rates, economic
instability, and lack of essential human
resources compared to the rest of the world.

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“First World”
-refers to so called developed, capitalist, industrial countries, roughly, a
bloc of countries aligned with the United States after World War II, with
more or less common political and economic interests.
North America, Western Europe, Japan and Australia
"Second World"
-refers to the former communist-socialist, industrial states, (formerly the
Eastern bloc, the territory and sphere of influence of the Union of Soviet
Socialists Republic) today.
Russia, Eastern Europe (e.g., Poland) and some of the Turk States (e.g.,
Kazakhstan) and China

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"Third World" is all the other countries, today often used to roughly
describe the developing countries.
• capitalist (e.g., Venezuela)
• communist (e.g., North Korea)
• very rich (e.g., Saudi Arabia)
• very poor (e.g., Mali) countries
• Political Rights and Civil Liberties,
• Gross National Income (GNI)
• Poverty of countries
• Human Development of countries
• Freedom of Information within a country
3rd
World classified by various indicators

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"Fourth World"
-first came into use in 1974 with the publication
of Shuswap Chief George Manuel
“Indian reality” - the term refers to nations
(cultural entities, ethnic groups) of indigenous
peoples living within or across state boundaries
(nation states).

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The Third World: Unity, Diversity & Inequality
Development has been studied because of the problems of inequality
polarization and “uneven/unequal” development within the global
system of state societies.
The main focus of development studies should be differentiation and
diversity within the third world which is misleading and inadequate.
“Above all development theory must not only be concerned with
diversity but also inequality”

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Samir Amin, a scholar, argued that in recent decades there is an
increasing concentration of wealth and power in the hands of
few core countries.
He also argued that, the core/developed/industrialized countries
has increased their control on what he calls the five monopolies
of the center.

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1) Technological Monopoly - this requires huge financial power
that only large and very rich/wealth states can afford.
2) Control over global financial markets and institutions
3) Monopolistic access to the planets resources
4) Media and communication monopolies
5) Monopolies over Weapons of Mass destruction
5 Monopolies of the Center

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Characteristics of Third World
Generally the following characteristics are usually given for third world countries
of Africa, Asia and Latin America:
1. They are relatively young
2. They are confronted with similar development problems
3. They are engaged in the developmental task of nation-building and socio-economic
progress
4. The per capital income is less
5. They are technologically less advanced
6. They are socially backward
7. They depend up on Foreign Aid
8. Politically - undemocratic

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4. Dimensions of Development
Development is always multi dimensional.
Here are 4 important dimensions of development:
1. Economic dimension
2. Human dimension
3. Sustainable dimension
4. Territorial dimension

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1. Economic development: is traditionally seen as the initial form
of development. It has been strictly associated with the concept
of economic growth determined through an increase in the per
capita income.
2. Human development: should be measured in terms of the
richness of human life. Development needs to ensure greater
access to knowledge, better nutrition and health services, more
secure livelihoods, security against crime and physical violence,
satisfying leisure hours, political and cultural freedoms and
sense of participation in community activities to people of a
society.

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3. Sustainable development: The concept of “sustainable
development was first introduced by Brundtland (1987), who
defined development as “sustainable” if it “meets the needs of
the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”.
Sustainable development contains within it two key concepts:
a. The concept of needs in particular, the essential needs of the
world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given
b. The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and
social organization on the environment's ability to meet
present and future needs

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4. Territorial development: this dimension of development refers to a
territorial system. It is intended to establish interrelationships
between rural and urban areas connecting them by information
systems and transport infrastructures.
- Processes to improve the quality of life. Better territorial
development levels are strongly related to fewer asymmetries
between regions’ level of development and therefore better levels of
cohesion (economic, social and territorial)

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• urban
• metropolitan
• regional or rural jurisdiction
• watershed
• coastal
• mountainous
• border areas
Most often, the term is used to encompass both local development
(narrowly associated with smaller,
first-tier, jurisdictions or even part of them and regional development
Ex. the development of larger, intermediate jurisdictions
(districts, provinces, regions, etc.).

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5. Determinants of Development
Natural Resources - is anything people can use which comes from nature.
People do not make natural resources but gather them from the earth.
These natural resources are resources which occur naturally within
environments that exist relatively undistributed by mankind in a natural
form.
Classifications of Natural Resources:
1. Renewable resources
2. Non-renewable resources
3. Biotic resources
4. Abiotic resources
5. Potential resources
6. Actual resources

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1. Renewable resources - resources that grow again or comeback again
after we use it
2. Non-renewable resources - are resources that do not grow or come
back
3. Biotic resources - are resources obtained from the biosphere
4. Abiotic resources - non-living things
5. Potential resources - are those which exist in a region and may be
used in the future
6. Actual resources - are those that have been surveyed, their quantity
and quality determined and are being used in present times
Classifications of Natural Resources:

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Human Capital - refers to the stock of competences, knowledge and
personality attributes embodied in the ability to perform labor so as to
produce economic value.
Human capital is productive investment embodied in human persons.
These include;
• skills
• abilities
• ideas
• health resulting from expenditures on education
• on-the-job training programs
• medical care.

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Capital - is "produced means of production", "stored up labor",
"that part of wealth that is put to productive use", means of
procuring the resources "; "factor which facilitates use of other
factors," and partakes the nature of monetary, physical
(addition to instruments to production), and human (labor put to
higher productive) form.
Capital is needed for capital widening in different sectors,
subsectors, activities, functions, regions, and ethnic groups. It
is needed for capital deepening for improving the scale
(lumpy investment or overcoming indivisibilities) and scope
of operation.

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How capital is formed in a country?
Capital accumulation results when some proportion of present income
is saved and invested in order to augment future output and income.
New factories, machinery, equipment, and materials increase the
physical capital stock of a nation (the total net real value of all physical
productive capital goods) and make it possible for pended output levels
to be achieved. These directly productive investments are supplemented
by investments in what is known as social and economic infrastructure
— roads, electricity, water and sanitation, communications, and the like
— which facilitates and integrates economic activities.

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Technological Progress - results from new and improved ways of
accomplishing traditional tasks such as growing crops, making clothing, or
building a house. Technology is the usage and knowledge of tools,
techniques, and crafts or is systems or methods of organization.
Three basic classifications of technological progress:
1. Neutral technological progress - occurs when higher output levels are
achieved with the same quantity and combinations of factor inputs.
2. Labor-saving technological progress - the achievement of higher output using
an unchanged quantity of labor inputs but as a result of some invention such
as computers, internet, automated looms, high speed electric drills, tractors
3. Capital-saving technologies progress - technological progress that results
from some invention or innovation that facilitate the achievement of higher
output levels using the same quantity of capital inputs.

45. 6. Models of Development
“Capitalist Model” - The capitalist model of development is
characterized by provision of private ownership of property
and means of production, minimum state control on economic
enterprises, and a free economy regulated by competition.
This developmental model also emphasizes sustained growth
and modernization with massive state investment at the
takeoff stage.

46. “Second World model” or the “Socialist Model” was
contradictory to the capitalist model of development.
It challenged the capitalist model of development. It
propagated the abolition of ownership of private property and
means of production, emphasized state ownership of means
of production, state-owned public enterprise, and a state
regulated economy and centralized planning by the state for
economic growth.

47. “The Developing World Model” is represented by the ex-colonial,
newly independent and non-aligned countries of Asia, Africa and
Latin America.
These countries were industrially backward at the time of
liberation. These countries witnessed wide diversity in terms of
their socio-cultural and political settings and historical experiences
and levels of technological and economic development.
This typified by emerging economies with diverse socio-economic
challenges, often marked by a focus on industrialization,
infrastructure development, and efforts to address poverty and
inequality.

48. The "Developing World Model" of development refers to a
set of economic and social strategies and policies tailored to
the unique challenges and circumstances faced by countries
categorized as "developing" or "underdeveloped."
These countries often struggle with issues such as:
• poverty,
• inadequate infrastructure,
• limited access to education and healthcare,
• political instability, and
• dependency on primary commodity exports.