Xavier University College of Agriculture

1. T U E S D A Y , J U N E 1 7 , 2 0 0 8
Unit 1 notes and assignment
I. UNIT 1 NOTES
UNDERSTANDING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: THE CONTEXT OF
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
UNDERSTANDING AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
DEFINING DEVELOPMENT
• going beyond criteria based on indices of per capita income
(statistical forms as well as those which concentrate on the study of
gross income are misleading). Basic criterion is whether or not the
society is a “being for itself”, i.e., its political, economic and
cultural decision‐making power is located within.” ‐Paulo Freire
• need oriented, geared to meeting both material and non material
human needs; endogenous, stemming from the heart of each society;
self‐reliant; ecologically sound, utilizing rationally the resources of
the biosphere; and based on structural transformation as an
integrated whole.
• (60s) most accurate measure of development was gross national
product ‐ total money value of goods and services produced by a
country in a given year. (70s) development does not only mean GNP
but also on the improvement of the quality of life of the individual;
person has become the yardstick.
• Should be defined to include both growth and distribution under
periods of both stability and change in institutional arrangements
(Havens, 1972)
• Normative concept, almost synonymous with improvement, growth,
advancement, progress
• Creating the conditions for the realization of human personality
(Seers, 1972)
• no universal, fixed definition ‐ it is relative, multi‐dimensional, and
process oriented.
AIM OF DEVELOPMENT
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2. • to help people become more productive
• to improve quality of life for individuals, families, communities and
countries as a whole
• As people become more productive, country is in better position to
trade with others
• more trade means more goods and services to continue improving
living conditions
ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Economically ‐ accumulation of human capital and its effective
investment in the
dev’t of economy
2. Politically ‐ process which prepares people for participation in
political affairs,
especially as citizens of a democratic country
3. Socially and Culturally ‐ helps people lead fuller, richer lives less
bound by traditions
4. Ethically ‐ entails improvement in the quality as well as quantity of
life
SOME DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
1. Growth Theories
a) Balanced Growth Theory‐ agriculture and industry sectors receive
equal shares of investment
b) Lewis Dual Theory
It tries to prove that modern industrial sector will attract workers
from the rural areas. But the theory is not all that perfect, it has its
lapses. it may have helped the farmers to work better and easier, but
the theory can't stand on its own two feet. The Lewis model explains
how labor transfers in a dual economy. For Lewis, growth of
industrial sector drives economic growth. The Model argues that
economic growth requires structural change in the economy whereby
surplus labor in agricultural sector with low or zero marginal
products, migrate to the modern industrial sector where high rising
marginal product is available.
b)
c) Unbalanced Growth Theory ‐ includes the following theories:
b.1 Deliberate unbalancing theory ‐ involves the prioritization of two
sectors (agriculture
and industry). One sector receives greater portion of investments. As
this sector
develops, the effects spill out to other sectors, thus development still

3. occurs
b.2 Capital accumulation theory involves the utilization of the
unlimited supplies of labor
found in agriculture sector. The assumption here is that once the
unlimited supplies
of labor are used, development occurs. However, this theory occurs
only in the
capitalist (industrial sector of society)
b.3 Growth through savings and investment theory‐states that every
economy must
save a certain proportion of its national income if only to replace
wornout capital
goods. The latter includes buildings, equipment and materials.
However, to grow, a
country needs new investments representing net additions to the
capital stock
2. Structural Theories
a) Dependency theory (Rostow)‐ views developing countries as being
beset by
institutional and structural rigidities and caught up in a dependent
and dominant
relationship with rich nations. The development of a dependent
country is conditioned
by the powerful country with which the former is attached. First
World nations
actively, but not necessarily consciously, perpetuate a state of
dependency through
various policies and initiatives. This state of dependency is
multifaceted, involving
economics, media control, politics, banking and finance, education,
sports and all
aspects of human resource development.
b) Developmentalism theory‐it is basically welfare‐oriented. It
believes that the major
goal of development is human welfare. It opts for structural reforms
that are equity‐
oriented or redistributive
3. STAGE THEORY
Rostow’s Linear Theory is a good way of transforming an
underemployed rural society to a productive urban– industrial society.
The transformation or the development is on a stage‐by‐stage basis,
no shortcuts. Though not a fast transformation, but still sustainable if
properly practiced. Savings and capital formation (accumulation) are

4. central to the process of growth. The key to development is to
mobilize savings to generate the investment to set in motion self
generating economic growth. Development requires substantial
investment in capital equipment; to foster growth in developing
nations the right conditions for such investment would have to be
created. That is, in order to achieve modernization and sustain the
economic development, proper and right practice especially with
regards to savings and investments should be done.
3. Liberation Theory
It focuses on the poor and the oppressed. Gustavo Gutiérrez is known
as the father of liberation theology. The causes of social issues such
as Christian poverty, female criminality, differences in class, in social
and economic power, in educational opportunity and achievement, in
health and physical well‐being, are the expressions and result of
institutionalized inequalities in opportunity. Liberation is possible to
recover the buried memories of our socialization, to share our stories
and heal the hurts imposed by the conditioning, to act in the present
in a humane and caring manner, to rebuild our human connections
and to change our world. Gutiérrez has emphasized a commitment of
solidarity with the poor, with those who suffer misery and injustice.
KARL MARX THEORY
For Karl Marx, the basic determining factor of human history is
economics. According to him, humans even from their earliest
beginnings are not motivated by grand ideas but instead by material
concerns, like the need to eat and survive. This is the basic premise
of a materialist view of history. At the beginning, people worked
together in unity and it wasn’t so bad. But eventually, humans
developed agriculture and the concept of private property. These two
facts created a division of labor and a separation of classes based
upon power and wealth. This, in turn, created the social conflict
which drive society. Societal power relationships are dialectical All of
this is made worse by capitalism which only increases the disparity
between the wealthy classes and the labor classes. Confrontation
between them is unavoidable because those classes are driven by
historical forces beyond anyone’s control. That power relationships in
the modern society are based on economic relationships. The
economic factors are the key to social changes. Labor has become the
means of creating wealth of a society. The society is the product of
its people's actions. The society reflects what kind of people it has.
4. Advantage Theory
The principle of comparative advantage is clearly counter‐intuitive.
Many results from the formal model are contrary to simple logic.

5. Secondly, the theory is easy to confuse with another notion about
advantageous trade, known in trade theory as the theory of absolute
advantage. The logic behind absolute advantage is quite intuitive.
This confusion between these two concepts leads many people to
think that they understand comparative advantage when in fact, what
they understand, is absolute advantage.
The model assumes only two countries producing two goods using just
one factor of production. There is no capital or land or other
resources needed for production. The real world, on the other hand,
consists of many countries producing many goods using many factors
of production. Each market is assumed to be perfectly competitive,
when in reality there are many industries in which firms have market
power. Labor productivity is assumed fixed, when in actuality it
changes over time, perhaps based on past production levels. Full
employment is assumed, when clearly workers cannot be immediately
and costlessly moved to other industries. Also, all workers are
assumed identical. This means that when a worker is moved from one
industry to another, he or she is immediately as productive as every
other worker who was previously employed there.
5. Staple Theory
Staple theory says: extensive growth for primary export leads to
diversification and industrialization if the country exports the "right
staple". Staple theory was developed with Canada in mind, and has
been the most widely accepted explanation for Canada's economic
development. Canada's economic development is thus seen as having
depended on the early development of the wheat economy.
APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT
1. Welfare – spontaneous response to manifestation of poverty usually
done by the rich;
commonly referred to as “dole‐out” by solving the problem and by
filling the gap.
basic needs are minimum requirements essential for decent human
existence,
2. Modernization (project) – introduces all resources lacking in the
community (e.g. capital, technology, infrastructure, etc.)
3. Ethical – treats a person as the end of the development process and
not the means to the end it is also known as “humanism approach”
that aims to provide all men the opportunity to live full human lives

6. 4. Liberationist – empowering the poor and the marginalized to break
away from unjust structure/system so that they can pursue their
interests. It is also known as “conscientization” which is the state of
the problems affecting oneself and the society (reflection) and
working towards solving such problems collectively with others
(action)
In 1973, the Development Academy of the Philippines listed the
following development indeces, each is measurable and quantitative:
1. health and nutrition
2. education and skills
3. income and consumption
4. employment
5. capital and non‐human resources
6. housing, utilities and environment
7. public safety and justice
8. social mobility
9. political values
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
What is Agricultural development?
The process of making fuller and more rational use of agricultural
resources of a country (or of an area) with special reference to
improving the efficiency of agriculture and level of the agricultural
population
An intentional change of an agricultural system, which is considered
desirable by people. This could be affected by:
Change in access to productive resources
Change in technology
Change in interrelationships between persons and institutions
Change in environment such as demand for a certain commodity
produced in the area and the price relations
Active intervention by an agency from outside
Among the changes in agriculture are the evolving technologies of
modern agriculture and sustainable agriculture
Features of Modern Agriculture:
1. Dynamic society that welcomes innovation and change
2. Highly productive and competitive because it uses modern
production and
management technology
3. Manned by an enterprising tiller who exercises hi or her right to
choose what

7. technology to apply, what crops to raise and when, and to whom to
sell his or her
product to get the highest returns.
COMPONENTS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Component Elements Essentials Accelerators
PRODUCTION Farm
Farmer
Farm business Production incentives
Constantly changing
Technologies Production Credit
MARKETING Demands for products
Market system
Confidence in the market systems Market performance
Transportation
SUPPLY Quality
Availability and accessibility
Technical effectiveness Production incentives Production credit
Education for development
GOVERNANCE Quality control
Law and order
Activity regulation Production incentives Group actions by farmers
Improving and expanding
agricultural lands
National planning for
agricultural dev’t.
RESEARCH Identification & location of
researchers to undertake
Location, organization and
administration of research
stations Availability of supplies
and equipment
Constantly changing
technology
Personal Competence National planning for
regional development
EDUCATION
EXTENSION Demand for extension science,
training, and skills Constantly changing
Technologies National Planning
for agricultural dev’t
Education for development

8. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Framework And Dimensions
1. Ecologically and Environmentally Sound
‐biodiversity (where a diverse host of creatures live with other species
promotion to multiple varieties/cropping, crop rotation, integration,
genetic conservation, alternative/ecological pest management, use
of natural pesticides/biological control/ water management/multiple
cropping/locally adapted seeds, diversifies integrated farming
systems)
2. Economically Viable (hidden costs on health, soil, water,
environment)
3. Socially Just and Humane
‐ respects human dignity
‐ equitable
‐ land to till
‐ access to services
‐ intergenerational equity
‐ consumers’ rights on toxic free products
‐ fair trading
‐ farmers’ control on production inputs
4. Culturally Sensitive and Appropriate
‐ respects traditions, values, beliefs and culture of people
‐ indigenous knowledge
‐ local knowledge
‐ sharing of resources/knowledge
‐ local communication systems (participatory extension)
5. Appropriate Technology
‐ location specific (crop, climate, soils, management, market,
pests/diseases, etc.)
‐ participatory research
‐ affordability
6. Grounded in Holistic Science
‐ integrative of local/indigenous knowledge, non‐reductionist
‐ values in farming
‐ respect on the integrity of creation
‐ spiritual dimension
7. Total Human Development

9. ‐ capacity
‐ confidence
‐ analytical ability
‐ head, mind, heart and body
Sustainability Concerns and Issue:
• SURVIVAL ‐ Main requirement is sufficient food and the means to
achieve this is Agriculture
• ECOLOGICALLY ACCEPTABLE PRODUCTION ‐ Where everything
removed is replaced so as not to harm ecological system
• THRIVING ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL ORDER ‐ With production
structures and relationships which ensure a fair distribution of
income, power, and opportunities, providing basis for social peace
• LONG‐TERM CARRYING CAPACITY OF REGIONS – Where there is no
negative impact on the environment.
COUNTRY EXPERIENCES
Summary Of Agriculture
Descriptions/
Considerations First Second Third
Industrial Revolution Green Revolution “Undervalued Resource”
Main Locations Industrialized Countries Irrigated and high rainfall,
high potential areas in the Third World Rained tropics, hinterlands,
most of sub‐Saharan Africa, etc.
Description of Farming System (relatively…) Simple Simple Complex
Description of Environmental Diversity (relatively…) Uniform Diverse
Diverse
Use of External Inputs Very High High Low
Agricultural Research and Development Approach On station research
and transfer of Technology (actual) Farmers’ Field (desirable)
(generating…) Package of Practices Basket of choices
Condition Overdeveloped Developed Underdeveloped
Current Production as Percentage of Sustainable Production Far Too
High Often Near the Limit Low
Priority Reduce Production Maintain Production Raise Production
AGRICULTURE LAWS
Republic Act 3639 ‐ The Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) was created to
take over the tasks
on plant research on crop production. Strengthened by Act No. 4007

10. also known as
Reorganization Law of 1932
Executive Order 216 ‐ Farm Operation division was created to plan
and program research
utilization and assignment of arm machinery, to introduce effective
farm crop practices
and to provide assistance inefficient management to the bureau’s
farm
EO 116 ‐ Placing BPI as staff bureau under the production Group
Presidential Decree 1433 ‐ The plant Quarantine Law
‐ Plant Quarantine being an activity necessary in crop protection
specifically mandates BPI to “prevent the introduction of exotic pests
in the country and prevent further spread of plant pests already
existing from infested to pest‐free areas and to enforce phytosanitary
measures for the export of plants, plant product and related articles.
RA 7308 ‐ The National Seed Industry development Act
‐ Cognizant of the BPI roles in the development of the seen industry
and it inherent function for seed and plant material certification, the
Act strengthens the Seed Quality Control Section to become the
National Seed Quality Control Service and given control supervision
over existing field inspections and control services and seed testing
laboratories and those which shall have to be established
RA 6657 ‐ Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988
‐ (An act to promote a more equitable distribution and ownership of
land with due regard
to the rights of landowners to just compensation and to the
ecological needs of the
nation)
RA 7900 ‐ High Value Crops Development Act of 1995
‐ (An act to promote the production, processing, marketing and
distribution of high‐
valued crops)
RA 8435 ‐ Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of 1997
‐(An act prescribing urgent related measures to modernize the
agriculture and fisheries
sectors of the country to enhance profitability and prepare said
sectors for the
challenges of globalization)

11. RA 7394 ‐ Consumer Act of 1992
‐This act reiterates BPI functions by specifically mandating BPI to
ensure safe supply of
fresh agricultural crops, and improve the quality of local fresh
agricultural crops and
promotes its export
RA 7607 ‐ Magna Carta for Small Farmers
‐ Recognizing BPI expertise and inherent functions pesticides residue
analysis and pesticide formulation, seed production and certification,
research, technology transfer and crop protection
MO No. 12 (03 March 2006)
Temporary Ban on the Importation of FMD‐Susceptible Animals, their
Products and By‐Products Originating from Argentina
AO No. 5 (07 March 2006)
Delineation in the Registration of Animal Feeds and Veterinary Drugs
and Products
AO 06 (18 April 2006)
Guidelines on the Production, Regulation, Promotion, Procurement
and Distribution of Seeds and Planting Materials
Department Order No. 03 series of 2007 designates the Agricultural
Training Institute as lead agency for the provision of e‐Extension
services in collaboration with the various agencies, bureaus and
organizational units of the DA. This is to integrate and harmonize
ICT‐based extension delivery system for agriculture and fisheries.
The electronic delivery of extension service is a network of
institutions that provide a more efficient alternative to a traditional
extension system for agriculture, fisheries and natural resources
sectors. It maximizes the use of information and communication
technology to attain a modernized agriculture and fisheries sector. It
focuses on creating an electronic and interactive bridge where
farmers, fishers and other stakeholders meet and transact to enhance
productivity, profitability and global competitiveness
II. ASSIGNMENT
1. Encode your answers to the following questions:
1.1 What development approach would be appropriate for the
Philippine condition
given our present state? Why?

12. 1.2 During Pres Fidel Ramos' time, he envisioned the Philippines to be
a
"newly industrialized country" or NIC by 2000. Was it realized? If yes,
what is your basis? If no, why did it fail?
2. Submit your assignment on Thursday, 19 July
3. REminder: Submit the signed/approved technology by your
department/unit head on
Thursday
Good luck!
POSTED BY ESTRELLA E TACO BORJA AT 5:33 AM NO COMMENTS:
M O N D A Y , J U N E 1 6 , 2 0 0 8
Course Outline
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
AND COMMUNICATION (AgExt 51)
Estrella E. Taco ‐ Borja
Development Communication Department
Xavier University College of Agriculture
April 2006
Course Description:
This course is designed for all plain BS Agriculture students as well as
those enrolled in the BS Food Technology and BS Agricultural
Engineering departments.
Entry Competency:
Since this course is offered in the third year or fourth year curricula
of the various departments, it is expected that the students who
would enroll in this course have had basic knowledge on basic
agriculture concepts and certain agriculture technology. Their basic
knowledge would be used as points of entry and as specific examples
as regards the application of various extension and communication
methods and techniques.
General Objectives:
A. Cognitive
• Discuss the principles and practices of agricultural extension and
communication and their relevance to sustainable agriculture and
development
• Identify various extension and communication methods and
approaches
B Affective

13. • Appreciate the nuances in handling and communicating with various
audiences
• Show concern to issues related to agriculture and the development
of the farming workforce/sector
Psychomotor
• Demonstrate selected extension methods through classroom or field
activities
References:
Adhikarya, Romy. 1994. Strategic Extension Campaign: A
Participatory‐Oriented Method of Agricultural
Extension. FAO of the UN, Rome
Battad, Teodora, et. al. 2003. Agricultural Extension. Grandwater
Publications, Makati City, Phils.
Cernea, Michael, et. al. (eds.). 1983. Agricultural Extension by
Training and Visit: The Asian Experience. International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, World Bank, Washington
Chambers, Robert. 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Last First.
Butler and Tanner, Ltd., London.
Ettington, Julius. 1989. The Winning Trainer (2nd ed.) Gull
Publishing House, Texas
Kwiatskowsky, Lynn. 1999. Struggling with Development: The Politics
of Hunger, Ateneo de Manila Press, Q.C.
Mosher, A.T. 1978. An Introduction to Agricultural Extension.
Singapore University Press for Agric. Dev’t Council
Ongkoko, Ila and Alexander Flor. 2003. Introduction to Development
Communication. SEAMEO SEARCA and the UP
Open University, College, Los Baños, Laguna
Swanson, Burton, et.a. (eds.). 1997. Improving Agricultural
Extension: A Reference Manual. FAO of the UN, Rome
Van den Ban, A.W. and H.S. Hawkins. 1996. Agricultural Extension
(2nd ed). Blackwell Science Lts., Great Britain
COURSE OUTLINE:
UNIT 1 : THE CONTEXT OF EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To contextualize discussions on agricultural extension through an
analysis of local, national and agricultural situation;
2. To present basic development theories and approaches;
3. To explain basic concepts in agriculture and agricultural
development;
4. To trace the development of agriculture over the years, with focus
on the Philippines; and,

14. 5. To identify basic agricultural laws
Coverage:
A Phil. Population and Agricultural Production
B Development Theories, Approaches
C Agriculture Modernization and Development
D Sustainable Agriculture and Development
E Agricultural Laws; DA EOs/Memos
UNIT 2 : AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION: AN INTERVENTION
FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To trace the history of agricultural extension; and,
2. To explain the basic concepts of extension: definition, philosophy,
goals, objectives and types of extension.
Coverage:
A Historical Antecedents of Agricultural Extension
a.1 Extension in Europe and in the USA
a.2 Extension in the Philippine Setting
B Extension Defined
b.1 Philosophy
1 educational process
2 democratic process
3 indigenous knowledge
4 continuous process
b.2 Goals and Objectives
1 intermediation/mediation
2 teach people
3 research & mobilization
4 local leadership identification
5 establishment of structure/institutions
b.3 Types of Extension
1. Informative extension
2. Emancipatory extension
3 Formative extension
4 Persuasive extension
b.4 Modern and Future of Agricultural Extension
b.5 Formal Extension and Extension Education
UNIT 3 : PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students are able
1. To identify the roles and functions of the extension worker;
2. To enumerate the principles and approaches of extension;

15. 3. To identify the various extension teaching methods, techniques
and approaches;
4. To appreciate the indispensable role of communication in
extension;
5. To explain the process of diffusion and adoption, teaching adults;
6. To illustrate the cycle of a development program; and,
7. To discuss and reflect on the extension experiences of the country.
Coverage:
A Present and future Roles and Functions of Extension Worker
B Principles
b1 Communication and education
b2 Accountability to client
b3 Works with rural people
b4 Two‐way process linkage
b5 Cooperates with other agencies
b6 Different target groups
b7 Developing rural leadership
C Changes and Challenges in Extension
Changes:
c1 client‐orientation
c2 electronic information
c3 participation
c4 unified extension service
Challenges:
c1 status of extension
c2 pre‐service education
c3 extension policy
c4 extension after decentralization
c5 impact assessment
c6 globalization
c7 linkages
c8 techno transfer focus
c9 info techno in extension
c10 participation and pluralism
D The Extension Delivery System

16. e1 research
e2 change
e3 client
E Extension Approach
UNIT 4 : COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To explain the basic concepts in communication;
2. To appreciate the indispensable role of communication in
extension;
3. To explain the process of diffusion and adoption; and,
4. To distinguish adult learning from conventional
classroom/academic learning.
Coverage:
A Basic Concepts
a1 Communication Process
a2 Forms of Communication
a3 Barriers of Communication
B Audio‐Visual Aids in Extension
C Teaching Methods and Classification
D Ways of Reaching Extension Audience
C Adult Learning and Adult Teaching
a. Principles of Adult teaching and learning
b. Characteristics of adults
c. Knowledge and learning
d. Teaching‐Learning models
MID‐TERM EXAMINATION
UNIT 5 : DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To explain the basic concepts of innovation and how to diffuse it
2. To identify the appropriate extension and communication
techniques according to given types of adopters and phases of
adoption
3. To appreciate the significance of the various extension and
communication tools in influencing target groups and individuals to
adopt a certain innovation

17. Coverage:
A Basic Concepts
B Stages in the Adoption‐Rejection Process
a. Awareness
b. Interest
c. Evaluation
d. Trial
e. Adoption‐Rejection
B Adopter categories
a. Innovators
b. Early adopters
c. Early majority
d. Late majority
e. Laggards
C Problems and issues in adoption
a. Attributes of technology
a.1 Relative advantage
a.2 Complexity
a.3 Compatibility
a.4 Trialability
a.5 Observability
b. Technology development process
c. Technology dissemination
D Models of Technology Transfer
d1 top‐down
d2 feedback technology
transfer
d3 modified FTT
d4 farmer‐back‐to‐farmer
d5 farmer first
d6 beyond the farmer first
break for:
PREPARATIONS FOR AND ACTUAL DEMONSTRATION DAY
UNIT 5 : PROGRAM PLANNING, MONITORING & EVALUATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. To illustrate the cycle of a development program; and,
2. To appreciate the value of program planning, monitoring, and

18. evaluation
Coverage:
A Definition E Typology of Participation
B Features of Sound Planning F Participatory Methods
C Planning Process
D M&E in Extension
UNIT 6 : COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
Specific Objectives: At the end of the session, the students are able
1. Describe the concept and process of community organization;
2. Appreciate the contribution of CO as a tool in Agri Extension and
Development
A. Definition
B. Stages and Process
C. Principles
D. Practical Tips
FINAL EXAMINATION
LEARNING METHODOLOGIES:
During the semester, students shall be exposed to various learning
methodologies, such as:
1. lecture‐discussion
2. e‐based interaction through the blog
3. on‐site lectures (possibly in cooperation with the Department of
Agriculture and NGOs)
4. field demonstration (Demo Day during Manresa Days)
5. library work and web‐based materials
6. field/office interviews
GRADING SYSTEM/REQUIREMENTS:
1. Term examinations ‐ Mid‐term and final examinations (100 points
each) = 200 points
2. Quizzes – announced or unannounced (total of 50 points) = 50
4. Participation in demonstration day (from preparation to dry run to
final presentation) =200
5. Assignments – 5 assignments with a total of 50 points = 50
Total =500 points
Computation shall be based on the total points earned by a student
(maximum of 500 points), no percent conversion needed, with a 60%
passing score, students should be able to compute the letter grade
equivalent.

19. References:
Adhikarya, Romy. 1994. Strategic Extension Campaign: A
Participatory‐Oriented Method of
Agricultural Extension. FAO of the UN, Rome
Battad, Teodora, et. al. 2003. Agricultural Extension. Grandwater
Publications, Makati City,
Phils.
Cernea, Michael, et. al. (eds.). 1983. Agricultural Extension by
Training and Visit: The Asian Experience. International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, World Bank,
Washington
Chambers, Robert. 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Last First.
Butler and Tanner, Ltd.,
London.
Ettington, Julius. 1989. The Winning Trainer (2nd ed.) Gull
Publishing House, Texas
Kwiatskowsky, Lynn. 1999. Struggling with Development: The Politics
of Hunger, Ateneo de
Manila Press, Q.C.
Mosher, A.T. 1978. An Introduction to Agricultural Extension.
Singapore University Press for
Agric. Dev’t Council
Ongkoko, Ila and Alexander Flor. 2003. Introduction to Development
Communication.
SEAMEO SEARCA and the UP Open University, College, Los Baños,
Laguna
Swanson, Burton, et.a. (eds.). 1997. Improving Agricultural
Extension: A Reference Manual.
FAO of the UN, Rome
Van den Ban, A.W. and H.S. Hawkins. 1996. Agricultural Extension
(2nd ed). Blackwell
Science Lts., Great Britain
and web‐based materials – www.neda.gov.ph; www.da.gov.ph;
others to be announced
CLASSROOM POLICIES
1. The demonstration day participation is a must. No student passes
the course without having participated in such
major activity.
2. Each students must have a notebook – for note‐taking and for
journals.

20. 3. Students must come to class on time.
4. No assignments are accepted after the agreed deadline; it’s either
on time or nothing.
5. Students are encouraged to participate in class discussion; they
must use the medium of
instruction which is English. There will be sessions where the
Vernacular shall be used
as an application for extension in the real work.
6. Notes may be posted on the instructor’s blog site:
trelborja.blogspot.com; students are
encouraged to visit the site and post comments as necessary
CLASS SCHEDULE
Room SC II: 7:05 – 8:20 TTh
CONSULTATION HOURS
1. office at A 202; Consultation Hours:
MWF: 5:00 – 6:00; TTh: 5:00 – 7:00; Sat: 9:00 – 10:00
Prepared by: Approved By:
ESTRELLA E . TACO – BORJA MA THERESA M RIVERA
Instructor Department Chair
Sem 1, SY 08‐08
POSTED BY ESTRELLA E TACO BORJA AT 8:31 PM NO COMMENTS:
Ag Extension SY 08‐09, COURSE OUTLINE
Dear students,
Welcome to Agricultural Extension and Communication class! The
course outline that I have included here will give you the detailed
description as well as the specific topics that we will take up during
the whole semester.
I wish you good luck and please do your role as a responsible student.
I welcome comments and suggestions. I encourage you to speak up
and express your thoughts and feelings on the course, on classroom
policies and management, learning techniques/style, etc.
Cheers,
Trel b
POSTED BY ESTRELLA E TACO BORJA AT 6:22 PM NO COMMENTS:

21. Newer Posts Home
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22. S A T U R D A Y , A U G U S T 2 3 , 2 0 0 8
Units 5&6, case
Dear all,
Please check this out as well as the case material that is at the end of
this unit notes. For the references of these units, please refer to the
course outline.
We shall have a short evaluation next week. I will include a few
bonus questions from the talk of Cebu Mayor Tommy Osmena this
afternoon.
Keep well
Trel b
==========================================================
================
UNIT 5
THE ADOPTION PROCESS
I. DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
Definitions:
Diffusion – The process of spreading technology/ information from
one group/agency/person to another
Innovation – An idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an
Individual
Technology ‐ science applied to practical purposes; means and
methods employed in production or manufacture of output;
innovation; generated by research, inventive farmers and others;
symbol of modernization
Innovation‐decision process ‐ mental process through which individual
passes from first knowledge of innovation to decision to adopt or
reject
Innovation‐decision period ‐ length of time required to pass through
innovation‐decision process. Adoption of innovation is primarily an
outcome of a learning and decision‐making process
Diffusion effect ‐ the cumulatively increasing degree of influence
upon an individual within a social system to adopt or reject an
B L O G A R C H I V E
▼ 2008 (7)
▼ September (1)
last chapters
► August (1)
► July (1)
► June (4)
A B O U T M E
ESTRELLA E TACO BORJA
I am generally pleasant but when
challenged my mood swings from an
ordinarily insignificant behavior
towards people or things to one that
is highly emotionally charged. I have
a soft spot for those who are
powerless, marginalized and
discriminated non‐conformists.
VIEW MY COMPLETE PROFILE
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A G R I C U L T U R A L E X T E N S I O N 0 8

23. innovation
Over adoption ‐ adoption of innovation when experts feel he/she
should reject
Symbolic adoption ‐ mental acceptance of innovation without
necessarily “putting it into practice”
Sequential adoption ‐ adoption of part of package of technology
initially and subsequently adds components over time
Innovation dissonance ‐ discrepancy between individual’s attitude
toward innovation and ones decision to adopt or reject an innovation
Discontinuance ‐ decision to cease use of an innovation after
previously adopting it, with 2 types:
a) Replacement discontinuance –innovation is rejected because a
better idea supersedes it
b) Disenchantment discontinuance –innovation is rejected as a result
of dissatisfaction with its
performance
The rate of awareness‐knowledge for an innovation is more rapid
than its rate of adoption.
Earlier adopters have shorter innovation‐decision period than later
adopters.
II. STAGES IN THE ADOPTION PROCESS:
(Five distinct stages in the adoption process and sample extension
methods)
1. Awareness – different mass media could be used to provide the
individual with knowledge of the innovation and create awareness
(e.g. mass media, popular theater). It is at this stage that the
innovation’s complexity and compatibility should be most important
2. Interest – whatever is the desired method to be used it should
include information strengthening and attitude building (e.g. group
meetings/discussions, radio forum, farm visit, etc.). It is at this stage
that the innovation’s relative advantage and observability should be
most important
3. Evaluation – the most critical stage in the adoption process because
the outcome generally determines whether or not the individual
proceeds to the trial and adoption stages (e.g. result demonstration,
farmer exchange, etc.). It is at this stage that the innovation’s
trialability should be most important.
4. Trial – methods for reinforcing the farmers’ interest should be used
(individual visit, farmer exchange, demonstration, on‐farm visit,
etc.)
5. Adoption or Rejection – the acceptance or rejection of an idea or

24. product (e.g. recognition program, competition, etc.)
III. ADOPTER CATEGORIES
The extension method chosen will depend on the following: goal,
resources, relationship with clients, skills of the extension agent on
the one hand, and the size and educational level of the target group
on the other.
Types of Adopters
1. Innovators (Venturesome) – the first to adopt; they introduce the
idea; they are
few; the daring and the risky but willing to accept occasional
setbacks.
2. Early adopters or influentials (Respectable) – the second group to
adopt and the most
important; they are quick to see the value of a new practice; these
are also the opinion leaders who
are respected by their peers. The fact that they adopted the new idea
makes it acceptable for the
others to do so. If the influentials are not receptive to the idea, the
adoption process will have difficulty
to continue. They are more integrated in local social system.
3. Early majority (Deliberate) – they get their social cues from the
influentials; adopt a practice only
after they are convinced of its value. They adopt new ideas just
before the average member of a social
system; rarely hold leadership positions; deliberate before completely
adopting a new idea. They do
not want to be the last to lay the old aside, nor the first one to try
what is new.
1. Late majority – large blocks of less wealthy; they get their cues
either from the influentials or from the early majority; adopt a
practice only when it is generally acceptable by the community
2. Late adopters/ Laggards (Traditional) – they have three sources for
reference and the last to adopt; very slow in making a decision
whether or not to adopt an innovation and are left behind in the
process; reference is the past; frankly suspicious; no opinion
leadership
3. Die‐hards – never adopt to the new idea
The Adoption Curve
IV. TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY

25. 1. product – physical goods
2. process – non‐tangibles; may be “system” for doing things (e.g.
models, strategies, etc.)
3. service –complementary activities/services to enhance existing
programs/ policies of govt
4. information – simply information or significant findings
Technology Development Process
1. generation – scientific and experimental stage
2. verification – met the following criteria:
• conducted in farmers ‘ fields
• tested for 2 seasons in TG trials
• showed economic, technical feasibility
3. adaptation – met the following criteria:
• only component of techno conducted in farmers’ field or station
• tested for TG
• good potential for economic feasibility/acceptance by farmers &
commercial producers
4. dissemination – met the following criteria:
• general adaptability
• economic profitability
• social acceptability
• potential availability of support services
5. commercialization –successfully passed piloting stage
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TECHNOLOGIES
1. Technical feasibility/General Adaptability 4. Environmental
Soundness
2. Economic Viability 5. Potential Availability of Support Services
3. Social Acceptability
TECHNOLOGY
Definition
A Science applied to practical purposes; means and methods
employed in the production or manufacture of an output; innovations
(science is an objective, accurate, systematic analysis of a determine
body of empirical data to discover recurring relationships between
phenomena)
Categories of Technology

26. 1. component technology – refers to specific cultural techniques in
the management/production of crops, livestock, fishery, etc.
2. package of technology (POT) – refers to the combination of all
necessary component technologies for production or postproduction
activities
Types of Technology
1. product – some technologies take the form of physical goods
1. process– non‐tangibles; may refer to a “system” for doing things
(e.g., models, strategies, etc.)
2. service– provide complementary activities/services to enhance
existing programs/policies of govt
3. information – simply information or significant findings
Technology Transfer
• Until the end of eighteenth century, farming techniques developed
gradually and steadily over centuries
• Colonialism and imperial expansion introduced innovations (eg.,
maize, tobacco, potatoes); experimentation and dissemination of
knowledge were basically at the local farm level
• The rise of agricultural sciences has induced dramatic changes
• New technology has been increasingly created by public sector
research organizations outside the actual farming sector
• Private firms in industrialized economies find agricultural
technology research and development highly profitable
• Research‐extension‐farmer linkage in developing countries was
based on a simple model of transferring modern research results to
the "traditional" farmer through extension
• The general faith in science and the commitment to modernization
led to discrediting indigenous knowledge but is now put in question
• Farming systems research and the "rediscovery" of farmers'
knowledge; "improved technology is a package of inputs and practices
that usually comes from many sources, including those of the farmers
(UNDP, 1991)
V. ATTRIBUTES OF TECHNOLOGY
Attributes of Innovation/Technology:
There are variables that also influence the attributes of people and
determine the adoption or
rejection of an innovation as perceived by the receiver of the
technology or innovation:
1. relative advantage – the degree to which an innovation is superior

27. to one it is intended to replace considering the following: degree of
economic profitability, initial cost, perceived risk, discomfort,
time/effort/resources saved, immediacy of reward. The perceived
relative advantage is positively related to its rate of adoption,
meaning, the more advantageous it is, the greater is the rate of
adoption.
2. compatibility – the extent to which an innovation fits into farmer’s
views about what ought to be. What he or she does in the farm, and
how he or she does it, whether or not it is consistent with existing
values, experiences and needs. The perceived compatibility of a new
idea is positively related to its rate of adoption, meaning, the more
compatible the technology is, the greater is the rate of adoption.
3. complexity ‐ some innovations are simply more complicated than
others or perceived as relatively difficult to understand while some
are clear to potential adopters. The perceived complexity of an
innovation is negatively related to its rate of adoption, meaning, the
more complex the innovation, the lesser is the rate of adoption.
4. trialability ‐ quality of an innovation that allows trying or
experimentation a little at a time. The perceived trialability of an
innovation is positively related to its adoption, meaning, the greater
would be the chance of adopting the innovation if it could be tried or
experimented
5. observability – the extent to which an innovation or its results can
be observed or visible to others. The perceived observability of an
innovation is positively related to its adoption, meaning, the more
observable it is the greater is the rate of adoption
UNIT 6
EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Methods ‐ the ways or techniques use by an extension system and
influence its target groups, i.e., to bring the target groups in
interaction with the context of extension
Strategy ‐ the operational design by which a national government
implements its extension policies
TEACHING METHODS
Extension‐teaching methods. The extension‐teaching methods are the
tools & techniques used to create situations in which communication
can take place between the rural people & the extension workers.
They are the methods of extending new knowledge & skills to the
rural people by drawing their attention towards them, arousing their
interest & helping them to have a sucessful experience of the new

28. practice.
A proper understanding of these methods & their selection for a
particular type of work are necessary.
Classification of extension teaching methods. (A)ACCORDING TO USE.
One way of classifying the extension methods is according to their use
& nature of contact. In other words, whether they are used for
contacting people individually, in groups or in masses. Based upon the
nature of contact, they are divided into individual, group & mass‐
contact methods.
Individual‐contact methods. Extension methods under this category
provide opportunities for face‐to‐face or person‐to‐person contact
between the rural people & the extension workers. These methods
are very effective in teaching new skills & creating goodwill between
farmers & the extension workers.
Group‐contact methods. Under this category, the rural people or
farmers are contacted in a group which usually consists of 20 to 25
persons. These groups are usually formed around a common interest.
These methods also involve a face‐to‐face contact with the people &
provide an opportunity for the exchange of ideas, for discussions on
problems & technical recommendations & finally for deciding the
future course of action.
Mass or community‐contact methods. An extension worker has to
approach a large number of people for disseminating a new
informaton & helping them to use it. this can be done through mass‐
contact methods conveniently. These methods are more useful for
making people aware of the new agricultural technology quickly.
Important extension‐teaching methods under these 3 categories are
listed in the following chart.
Chart 1. Classification of extension‐teaching methods according to
their use
Individual contacts Group contacts Mass contacts
Farm & home visits Method demonstration & result demonstration
Bulletins
Office calls National demonstration leader‐training meetings Leaflets
Telephone calls Conferences & discussion meetings & workshops
Circular letters & radio
Personal letters Field trips Television,exhibitions,fairs,posters
(B)ACCORDING TO FORM. Extension‐teaching methods are also
classified according to their forms, such as written, spoken & audio‐
visual. Some of the important methods under each of these 3
categories are given in Chart 2.
Chart 2. Classification of extension‐teaching methods according to
their form
Written Spoken Objective or visual
Bulletins General & special meetings Result demonstration

29. Leaflets,folders,News articles Farm & home visits Demonstration
posters
Personal letters Official calls Motion‐picture or movies, charts
Circular letters Telephone calls, radio Slides & film‐
strips,models,exhibits
A brief description of some of the extension methods which are
commonly used by extension workers is given below.
Farm & home visits. Farm & home visits constitute the direct or face‐
to‐face contact by an extension worker with the farmer or the
members of his family. During these visits, information is exchanged
or discussed. The visits may be to get acquainted with the problems
of the farmers, or to organisational purposes. Such visits provide an
opportunity for a two‐way communication.
Result demonstration. Result demonstration is an educational test to
prove the advantages of recommended practices & to demonstrate
their applicability to the local condition. It is conducted by a farmer
under the direct supervision of an extension worker. It is designed to
teach others, in addition to the person who conducts the
demonstration. It helps the farmers to learn by seeing & doing. This
method can be used to show the supoeriority of practices, such as the
use of fertilisers, insecticides & pesticides & high yielding varieties of
seeds.
Method demonstration. It is used to show the technique of doing
things or carrying out new practices, e.g. preparing a nursery‐bed,
treating seed with insecticides & fungicides, line‐sowing, taking a
soil sample, grafting fruit trees, etc. This method is usually used for
groups of people.
National demonstrations. National demonstrations are the "first‐line
demonstrations," conducted by researchers on the farmers' fields to
show how production can be increased per unit of area & per unit of
time. These demonstrations usually include the system of multiple
cropping & the use of high‐yielding varieties, along with the best
package of practices. They were first initiated on a modest scale in
1965 & have now become a part of the agricultural production
programme in the country.
Group discussions. all the farmers cannot be contacted by extension
workers individually because of their large number. It is convenient &
feasible to contact them in groups. This method is commonly known
as group discussion. It is used to encourage & stimulate the people to
learn more about the problems that concern the community through
discussion. It is a good method of involving the local people in
developing local leadership & in deciding on a plan of action in a

30. democratic way.
Exhibitions. An exhibition is a systematic display of information,
actual specimens, models, posters, photographs, and charts, etc in a
logical sequence. It is organised for arousing the interest of the
visitors in the things displayed. It is one of the best media for
reaching a large number of people, especially illiterate & semi‐
illiterate people. Exhibitions are used for a wide range of topics, such
as planning a model village, demonstrating improved irrigation
practices, soil conservation methods, showing high‐yielding varieties
of seeds & plants, new agricultural implements & the best products of
vilage industries.
General meetings. These are usually held for passing on certain
information to the people for future action. Extension workers give
lectures to the people on certain pre‐selected items of work, such as
the celebration of Van mahotsav, a national festival.
Campaigns. Campaigns are used to focus the attention of the people
on a particular problem, e.g. rat control, village sanitation & plant
protection, the production of rabi crops & family planning. Through
this method, the maximum number of farmers can be reached in the
shortest possible time. It builds up community confidence & involves
the people emotionally in a programme.
Tours & field days. Conducted tours for farmers are used to convince
them & to provide them with an opportunity of seeing the results of
new practices, demonstration skills, new implements etc. & to give
them an idea regarding the suitability & application of these things in
their own area. Such tours may also be arranged to enable the rural
people to visit places & institutions connected with the problems of
rural life, such as research institutions, training institutions,
agricultural universities, model vilages, areas of advanced
developments, leading private farms, exhibitions, & agricultural &
cattle fairs.
Printed matter(literature). Newspapers, magazines,
bulletins,leaflets, folders, pamphlets & wall news‐sheets are another
set of mass media for communicating information to a large number
of literate people. They are used for communicating general &
specific information on a programme of technology or a
practice.Small folders, leaflets & pamphlets are used to give specific
recommendations about a practice, such as the use of fertilisers,
vegetable cultivation, green‐manuring & the growing of individual
crops, e.g. wheat, barley, gram & sugarcane.
Radio. It is a mass medium of communication & can reach a large
number of people at any given time involving the least expense.
Extension workers use the radio for communicating information on
new methods & techniques, giving timely information about the
control of croppests & diseases, weather, market news, etc. For this

31. purpose, talks, group discussions, folk‐songs, dialogues & dramas are
usually organised. There are 38 stations of All‐India Radio
broadcasting regular rural programmes.
Television It is one of the most powerful media of communication. It
has come into vogue only in the recent years. It combines both audio
& visual impact & is very suitable for the dissemination of agricultural
information. It is more useful in teaching how to do a specific job.
A beginning has ben made in India for using this medium for
development programmes since 1967, & it is expected that its use
will become more extensive in the coming years.
Motion‐pictures(movies). Movies are an effective tool for arousing
interest among the people, because they involve seeing, hearing, &
action. They are the most suitable medium for drawing bigger
audience. a film show can be followed by a discussion with the
villagers.
Group Methods
1. Farmer’s classes/Seminars (farmers attend classes or learning
sessions in non‐formal setting also termed as farmer field school)
Key Principles of Farmer Field School:
a) What is relevant and meaningful is decided and must be discovered
by learner
b) Learning is a consequence of experience
c) Cooperative approaches are enabling
d) Learning is an evolutionary process characterized by free and open
communication, confrontation, acceptance, respect and the right to
make mistakes
e) Each person’s experience of reality is unique
2. Lecture/Discussions (a formal verbal presentation with specific
learning objectives delivered
by a qualified speaker to a group of listeners and facilitating
discussion among the listeners)
3. Role Play (farmers act out certain situations to anticipate their
future actions should the
situation happens; a problem‐solving technique where farmers act out
the problem and the
response; could also be used to act out experiences to show what they
learned)
4. Farm Demonstrations (an invaluable method in extension where
farmers see new idea
works and what effect it can have on increasing their crop
production).
Types of Demonstrations:

32. a) Method Demonstration – shows farmers how something is done
step‐by‐step for the
purpose of teaching new techniques
b) Result Demonstration – shows local farmers why a particular new
recommendation/
practice should be adopted by comparing new practice with a
commonly used local
practice (“seeing is believing”).
5. Demonstration Plot: demo farm, demo field
6. Field Days (organized demons, displays, etc. of specified subjects,
practices or processes
combining info, instruction and promotion; a day or days on which an
area containing successful farming or other practices is open tfor
people to visits; it permits
farmers to observe personally and ask about successful farming
practice; it creates a
situation in which information contacts and learning can take place.)
2. Campaign (intensive activity in coordinated way to achieve
objective such s control,
sanitation, etc).
3. Tours/Excursions/Field Trips (farmers witness together an
improved performance or result of
specific practice in actual setting; a group of farmers travel to
another location to observe
practices, projects, demonstrations not available locally.)
4. Exhibits/Displays (the use of posters, pictures, photos, models,
etc. to share new info and
create interest
5. Popular/Theater (following media: drama, singing, dancing, using
local language to deal with
local problems, etc.)
6. Puppetry (use of dolls, small figures, images so as not only to
entertain but also to educate)
7. Group Discussion (a group of farmers organized for the purpose of
sharing information
about a specific topic, and analyzing and evaluating that information
to get some general
conclusions or agreement)
8. Group Meetings (calling members of a local community together
for a meeting)
Types of Meetings According to Purpose:
a) Information Meetings – to communicate a specific piece of
information which the
extension agent feels will benefit the community

33. b) Planning Meetings – to review a particular problem, suggest a
number of solutions and
decide upon a course of action.
c) Special Interest Meetings – topics of specific interest to a particular
group of people are
presented and discussed in detail at a level relevant to those who are
participating
d) General Community Meetings – the community is invited to attend
in order to discuss
issues of general community interest. It is important to hold such
general meetings
occasionally so as to avoid any community group feeling that is
excluded extension
activities.
Mass Media Methods
Campaigns
Print Media (leaflets, bulletins, newspaper, etc); Publications and
circulars (journals, daily press, posters)
Broadcast‐based
Indigenous Folk Media
Modern Information Technology
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH METHOD:
Individual Methods
Advantages:
• Good way of giving information to solve unique problem that
involves major decision of
farmer
• Possible to integrate information from with information from
extension agent
• Extension agent can help farmers clarify their feelings and choose
between conflicting
goals
• Extension agent can increase farmer’s trust by showing interest in
farmer as person, his
or her situations and ideas
Disadvantages:
• Cost are high in terms of extension agent time and travel
• Extension agent usually reaches only a small portion of target group
• Extension can give incorrect information
• Method is based on high level of trust between farmer and
extension agent

34. Group methods
Advantages:
• Coverage‐ possibility of greater extension coverage; more cost
effective
• Learning Environment‐ more reflective learning environment in
which farmer can listen,
discuss and decide upon involvement in extension activity
• Action‐ group creates supportive atmosphere, and individual
farmers gain more self‐
confidence by joining others to discuss new ideas and move them into
concerted action
Important Issues:
• Purpose‐ how to develop group, to encourage members to continue
to meet
and establish group on a more permanent basis.
‐ how to transmit new ideas, information, knowledge that will assist
the farmers in their
farm activity.
• Size‐ ideal size for groups in extension is 20‐ 40; one major
determinant is
geographical location.
• Membership‐ farmer members should share common interest and
problems
• Agent’s Relationship with Group‐ agent should establish structure
based on
social and culture context of community groups he or she serves, and
ensures it will
function with minimum extension support.
Types Of Farmers’ Organization
1. community‐ based and resource‐ oriented organization (e.g.
village level coops‐
these organizations are generally small and more concerned about
inputs, etc.
2. commodity‐ based and market‐ oriented organization – specialize
in single
commodity and opt for value‐ added products which have expanded
markets
Mass Media Methods
Important distinguishing characteristics of interpersonal and mass
media channel of
communication.

35. Factors in the choice of a method
a. Goal, learning objectives and subject matter
b. Philosophy of learning and learners
c. Competence and skills of the extension agent and on the one hand
and on the size and education level of the target group on the other
of extension worker
d. Learning environment
e. Resources
f. Relationship with clients
Or consider the following:
Factors to Consider in the Choice of Extension Teaching
With changing educational goals, the choice of extension teaching
becomes important. How is an extension worker to decide what
extension method he is to use?
The following factors help determine this:
1. Rural People are not all alike
a. People differ in nationality, culture background, schooling,
occupation, religion, income, organization membership, size family,
attachment to local community, in size of farms they operate and
type of agriculture
b. These affect their attitudes, habits, and actions and responses.
2. People do not live alone
a. People satisfy desire for group association in a number of ways.
b. People associate with their own and just naturally from groups.
c. Extension can serve people along group organization lines.
3. Tremendous power in Group
a. People are likely to act when in a group.
4. Local community is the Main Group
a. Most human relations are carried on within a fairly small area, in
nearby places, i.e. churches, schools, community centers etc.
b. A local unit of Extension organization is necessary to reach a
majority of people.
c. Extension teaching must be based on group life below the province
level, (generally at the barrio level.)
5. People want Security, Recognition and Response
a. Psychological security is needed in addition to economic security.
b. Extension teaching must be based on group life below the province
level.
6. People have objectives, hopes, standards and values

36. a. Social objectives are necessary together with economic objectives.
b. People differ in their goals and standards, depending upon age
levels, nationality, education and religious values, etc.
7. Goals and Standards are determined by Family and Community
a. Objectives of farmers and housewives are mostly geared to needs
of family.
b. Motivation should be made on the basis of family‐community
circumstances.
8. Principles of Involvement
a. Effective teaching and responses are attained when people are
concerned and involved in the planning process.
9. People like to do things for themselves, and they do not like to be
over urged
a. People respond better when the approach is made on self‐analysis
basis; made to feel that the program is theirs and not that of the
Extension worker.
10. People learn from others, but not just from anybody
a. The power of influence of the informal leader is grate and should
be used.
b. Leaders must be accepted leaders with large following.
c. Extension workers must learn to identify these leaders.
Ways of Reaching Your Extension Audience
1. Through the Family Case Method (also known as Farm or Home
Visit)
Extension information is provided on a family or individual case basis.
This is the simplest way of doing extension work, for no majors’
organization is involved.
Advantage: Program can be adjusted to fit the individual case.
Personal attention can be given to the individual’s educational
problem.
Disadvantage: Requires too much time; no opportunities for group
participation, leadership development, group learning, and group
action.
2. Through the Key Family Case Method
Individual casework is purposely done with key families who have
influence over others. It is simple form of teaching people.
Advantage: Serves more families with less time than family case.
Disadvantage: Requires skill and time to locate and develop key
families.
3. Through the Project Leader Idea
Certain persons are selected as project leaders or teaching leaders,
who serves as local point of contact. Project leader is trained in a
subject, then in turn trains others.

37. Advantage: Helps to multiply the hands of the extension agent, and
at the same time promote leadership development.
Disadvantage: Program limited to specialties in subject matter; other
areas of problems of subject matter may be neglected.
4. Through the Country Planning or Advisory Council
Provides a way of finding felt needs and interest of the people, and
discovering real problems. This leads towards good program
development and also contributes towards leadership development
Advantage: Involvement of people. Development of leaders
Disadvantage: As the leaders are hand picked, and not democratically
selected, they may not truly represent the people and council may be
misused.
5. Through the Inside‐Extension Club
This is common in home demonstration or home economics work
where groups are organized by extension and regularly for extension
lessons.
Advantage: Groups help to keep extension more clearly before the
people, promote
unity of feeling and purpose, develop personality and leadership,
provide social function
for members, and can multiply the hand of the agent.
Disadvantage: Members of such a group easily becomes close friends
and use the club
as their social outlet exclusively. It then may become limited to a
certain group of people
in the community and the educational purpose may become lost.
6. Through Direct‐Purpose‐Sponsor Organization
Similar to #5, except that some organizes the local club allied
sponsoring organization, such as Farm Bureau. Home Bureau etc.,
rather than organized by extension.
Advantage: Extension has the advantage of a ready‐made
organization without differ
from doing organizing.
Disadvantage: The sponsoring organization may have goals or
objectives, which differ
from those extensions.
7. Through Miscellaneous‐Regular Local Organizations
Well suited to communities where people belong to one or more well‐
organized groups, such as PTA, Church and others
Advantage: Same advantages as found in #6
Disadvantage: Same advantages found as #6. In addition, many
people may not belong to such organizations.
8. Through Farmer’s Commodity Organization
Common areas where agriculture us highly specialized. Provides an
excellent means of reaching people in the community.

38. Advantage: Working with organizations, which belong to the people,
and with farmers
which all have become commodity problems.
Disadvantage: Agents often have to serve as officers in the
organization, and many farmers, may not belong to the organization.
9. Through a Whole Community Organization Plan
Whole Community functions as one large group representing the
people. Various functional committees are set up to handle phases,
including farming, home making, etc.
Advantage: Same as #5 provisions for unity in the community. Makes
it easy to
reach many people and puts community influences back of
recommended practices.
Develops interest and leadership and provides means of achieving
farm, home and
community development programs.
Disadvantages: may not work where the community already has
several strong
organizations.
......END OF CHS 5&6....
‐================================================
CASE: submit on Tuesday your answer on a half‐sheet of yellow
paper. good luck
Mr San Diego has been farming for more than ten years already. On a
ten‐hectare area, he grows rice on irrigated section, sweet corn and
vegetables on flat, non‐irrigated lands. With five farm workers, he is
able to optimize farm development by employing farm mechanization
technique. He has a tractor and post‐harvest facilities such as
thresher, corn sheller and solar dryer. He adopts modern farming
methods and applies chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides to
increase production.
When he bought the land from a tenant‐turned owner, some five
years back, he found out that the soil was no longer fertile. He tried
to rehabilitate the condition by employing certain modern farming
techniques.
It took him about three years before he was able to see the good
results of his intervention.
Here comes… YOU, the extension agent.
Having learned about sustainable agriculture in college and having
learned its values and principles, you convinced him to shift to SA.

39. Tell me how you will do it –describe certain procedures and protocols
POSTED BY ESTRELLA E TACO BORJA AT 2:10 AM NO COMMENTS:
W E D N E S D A Y , J U L Y 1 6 , 2 0 0 8
Units 3&4
Hi guys,
I'm very sorry for not being able to hold our class yesterday. I heard
that some were frustrated (not because you missed seeing me but for
the reason that you came to XU just for the agext class ‐ mea
culpa!)while there were also others who were very happy with my
absence, ha, ha. Anyway, I've attached the next two units to makeup
for the missed session.
By the way, I expect your draft brochure tomorrow. Please start
prearing your materials now. The techno demo is already soon.
Please be disturbed and prepare for
the big day!!!
I will see you in our new room ‐ 2nd floor agriculture building (the
room at the end)
REgards
Trel b
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
UNIT 3
THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EXTENSION WORKER
1. Enabler – provides farmers with resources, authority, opportunities
to be able to do something; capacitates people
2. Educator – facilitates learning for people to deal with their needs
3. Mediator – works with both sides/involved parties to try to help the
parties involved in conflict or misunderstanding reach an agreement
4. Farmer aid – or technician roles wherein the extension agent
provides technical expertise for people’s technical problems
5. Facilitator – in the dialect, this means “tigpahapsay” o
‘tigpasayon’; mobilizes people into organized action for a purpose
SOME PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION
[Principle is defined as a basic assumption; standard of moral or
ethical decision‐making (Encarta Encyclopedia, 2004)]

40. 1. Communication and Education
‐ Extension agent’s role: communication and education; . It is an
informal educational process, which aims through making wise use of
natural resources for the benefit of the individual, the family, the
community and the nation.
‐ Communication: pass on useful information and technology to
people who need them
‐ Education: help rural people acquire the knowledge, skills and
attitude that will help them effectively utilize the information or
technology
2. Works with Rural People
‐ For impact and sustainability, work with the not for the people
‐ People must participate and make decisions that will benefit them;
extension agents must assist them by providing all the information
needed and possible alternative solutions to clientele problems
3. Accountability to the clientele
‐ Extension agent must justify to the organization whatever action
he/she takes and be accountable and responsible to the clientele on
whatever advice or information given to them.
‐ The clientele is the one to pass judgment on the success or failure
of the extension
4. Two‐way Process Linkage
‐ Disseminate information and technology to and receive feedback
from clientele so that their needs can be better fulfilled
‐ Learn from the clientele the wealth of their experiences
5. Cooperates with other agencies
‐ Extension is only one aspect of many economic, social, cultural and
political activities that hope to produce for the betterment of the
rural masses
‐ Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs
and NGOs to accomplish the above
‐ Extension cant be effective on its own as its activities must be
interdependent on other related activities
6. Different Target Groups
‐ Extension clientele is made up of various target groups with
different needs, social status, cultural and economic background
‐ Extension therefore cannot offer a package of technology for all its
clientele due to this heterogeneity
‐ There must therefore be targeting extension, meaning different
programs and technology packages for different target groups.
7. Economic necessity
– Extension serves the economic objectives of the nation through the
productive use of the

41. country’s natural resources.
(From Battad’s: Principles of Extension include the following:)
1. cultural difference (same as no. 6 above)
2. cultural change (same as no 6. above)
3. interests and needs (same as no. 6 above)
4. grassroots approach (same as no. 2 above)
5. cooperation (same as no. 5)
6. participation (same as no. 2)
7. use of extension teaching methods (same as no. 1)
8. leadership (same as no. 3)
9. voluntary education (same as no. 1)
10. satisfaction
11. trained specialists
12. whole family approach
The following principles may also be considered:
1. Extension is not a form of charity and the extension worker must
never be guilty of ‘giving something for nothing’
2. Extension work must never be forced on people for them
themselves. Must learn to feel the need and ask for help in reaching a
solution for their problems, or better still, for the people to solve
their problems
3. People must take part in every stage of extension work
4. Extension worker must be content with steady progress and avoid
attempting to do “to much to fast”
5. progress extension largely depends on training and effectiveness of
local leaders
MAJOR CHANGES IN EXTENSION TODAY
Over the years, extension has become more participatory. This means
that there is a growing recognition of the importance of the
involvement of the local people as active participants in the entire
process of research and extension.
EXTENSION MODELS
Transfer of Techno IPM, FFS Mini‐enterprise dev Natural resource mgt
================== ======== ===================
====================
Practice Innovations Managing farm Organize for Collective action
as ecosystems marketing

42. Learning Adoption Complex learning Becoming an Social learning
process entrepreneur
Facilitation Transfer Farmer Field Sch Consultancy Mediation
Institnl Linear Configurn Informal Network Universities Civil society
support Research decentraliz'n NGOs Extension collaboration
Extension
Policy Investment in Removal of Investment Environmental
Research subsidies, policy
and Extension training
Over the years, extension has become more participatory. This means
that there is a growing recognition of the importance of the
involvement of the local people as active participants in the entire
process of research and extension.
GLOBAL TRENDS (Qamar, FAO)
1. client‐orientation
2. application of electronic information technology
3. participatory extension
‐participatory farmer group
‐client‐oriented
‐gender‐sensitive
‐research‐extension‐farmer linkages
‐development tools (PRA, Knowledge/Attitude/Practice survey)
‐empowerment
4. unified extension service
THE EXTENSION DELIVERY SYSTEM:
AN ESSENTIAL INGREDIENT FOR CHANGE
The Extension Delivery System
‐ ‐ the organized mechanism to bring the required knowledge, skills,
and when necessary, material resources that farmer and his or her
family need in their quest for an improved quality of life.
Agricultural Knowledge Information System (AKIS):
An Agricultural Information System – The whole process of generating
information, transforming transferring and consolidating the same
and finally fed back to ensure utilization of knowledge by agricultural

43. producers
An Agricultural Knowledge System ‐ A system of beliefs, cognitions,
models, theories, concepts in which the experience of a person on
agricultural production is accumulated.
Components of an Extension Delivery System
• Research System
• Change System
• Client System
The Research System
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
‐ composed of researchers and scientists from international and
national research centers and from research institutions such as
universities and research stations.
‐ Main function of this system is to generate technological innovations
that will usher in the needed changes in line with a country’s
development efforts.
The Change System
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
‐ assumes the task of disseminating information and other goods and
services designed to bring about changes in client behavior. The
following factors affect the functions of the change system:
Doctrine – an expression of what the organization stands for, what
it is striving to achieve, and what approaches or methods it intends to
use to attain these objectives. (Arndt and Ruttan, 1977)
Organizational Structure – the organizational structure sets the
formal framework for the ways in which tasks are carried out ( Kast
and Rosenzweig, 1977). Corollary to structure are the resources the
organization in line with its designated functions. It is what the
organization performs for and on behalf of its clientele (Axinn and
Thorat, 1972).
The Change Agent – success in producing the desired changes in
clients depends to a great extent on the extension worker, since he
deals directly with clients.
The Client System
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐
‐efforts are enhanced by an accurate and thorough assessment of the
needs and resources, both material and human, of the rural social
systems served; as well as a working knowledge of the principles of
effective communication and adult learning.

44. An extension delivery system is essentially a mechanism for
technological innovations requires coordination and cooperation
among all components of the system.
MODELS OF TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER:
1. Top‐down Technology Transfer Model
‐one‐way process
‐lacks farmer involvement
‐applicable in a relatively uniform and predictable environment
‐works well in activities focused on single commodity
‐clients/receivers’ roles are fixed; little flexibility for the human
element
2. Feedback Technology Transfer (FTT) Model
–feedback remains exclusively with the extension service
3. Modified FTT Model
–scientist is isolated from farmer; depends on raw/incomplete
information
available
‐fixed roles of receiver
4. Farmer‐Back‐To‐Farmer Model
–research begins and ends with farmers
–extensionist is active participant (in community diagnosis, designing,
etc.)
‐farmer is involved in all stages of the communication process –
basically
dynamic model
5. Farmer First Model – aimed at generating choices to enable
farmers to
experiment, adapt and innovate; considers the primacy of farmers
agenda &
knowledge; provides approaches for mainstreaming farmers in
research; and a
new view on the “outsiders” roles.
6. Beyond the “Farmer First”? – Answering to the weaknesses of the
farmer first model, perspective is shifting to “beyond the farmers
first” by providing analytical depth and presenting more radical
programs that incorporate a socio‐politically differentiated view of
development where factors such as age, gender, ethnicity class and
religion are related.
UNIT 4
COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION

45. COMMUNICATION
‐Comes from the Latin word “communis” which means “to make
common.”
‐Process of sharing, relationship of participants in the process
(Kincaid and Schramm)
Various Definitions of Communication
Aristotle – all available means of persuasion
Laswell – describes it as who says what in which channel, to whom
and with what effect (SMCRE).
Berlo – a process by which a source sends message to some channels
to a receiver to effect behavior (SMCREF model; began with SMCR
only, later +E then finally +F – the most cited model)).
Schramm – the sharing of meaning between two individuals who have
similar experiences and similar meaning.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
Source – initiator of the communication activity (person or group of
persons or any of the media).
Receiver – the person to whom the message is directed.
Message – the physical product of the source transmitted to the
receiver; set of symbols.
Channel – medium utilized to convey a message; effective links.
Effect – the result; response, reactions of the impact of the message
to the receiver regardless of whether or not the message belongs to
the source.
Feedback – response of the receiver that is communicated to the
source.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:
SOURCE‐RECEIVER FACTORS:
1. Communication skills – there are five verbal communication skills:
For encoding – writing and speaking
For decoding – listening
For both – thought or reason

46. 2. Attitudes – bias or predisposition towards something or someone.
3. Knowledge level – this includes knowledge level about the subject
matter, ones own attitudes, characteristics and source‐receiver, ways
in which the source‐receiver can treat messages and communication
channels from which the source‐receiver can choose.
4. Social system – refers to the group of which a person belongs, his
or her perceptions of his or her place in the world, position in own
social class, rank and similar aspects, which affect communication
behavior.
5. Cultural system – refers to the person’s beliefs, values, ways of
making things and ways of behaving.
Other Concepts Concerning Source:
1. Credibility
• Set of perceptions about sources held by receivers
• Credibility factors: competence or expertise, safety or
trustworthiness and dynamism plus smooth interpersonal relationship
2. Status Differential
• Each occupies a number of role positions
• Each role demands a particular behavior
• Each role has a status that goes with it
3. Homophily
• Similarity of source to receiver (attributes such as beliefs, values,
education, etc.)
• It determines level of acceptance of message by receiver
• Also affects attitude of source to receiver and vise‐versa
4. Heterophily
• Degree to which source is different from receiver affecting source‐
receiver attitudes and acceptance of message
5. Opinion Leader
• Anyone approached by others for advice
• Perceived by followers as credible, influential and authoritative
6. Charisma
• Possession of certain characteristics (cannot be easily
explained/defined)
Other Concepts Concerning Receiver:
1. Obstinate Audience
• People select from messages
• What they remember depends on the use they expect to have
2. Psychological Orientation
• Psychological factors salient to receiver’s action towards a
message:

47. a. Processes of selective attention, perception and retention
b. Information processing capacity
c. Perception as influenced by past experiences, needs and
motivations, mental set, interests
3. Social‐Psychological Orientation
• Receiver’s response to a message is influenced by open‐mindedness,
self‐esteem, beliefs and values, achievement motivation and risk
orientation
4. Sociological Orientation
a. Sociological factors that influence receiver’s persuasibility:
b. Group membership
c. Roles and functions in membership groups
d. Reference groups
e. Norms and rules of membership groups
f. Customs and traditions
MESSAGE FACTORS
Message – the actual product of the source‐encoder and consists of
symbols and stimuli which have meanings for people, and which can
elicit particular responses from them.
Components:
The components of a message are code, content and treatment. Code
is a group of symbols or a set of rules for combining the symbols,
while content is the material in the message that was selected by the
source to express his or her purpose. Meanwhile, the decision which
the source makes in selecting and arranging both codes and content
in the treatment.
The meaning of a message is not in the elements of a message, it is
in the experience of the source‐receiver. There are four types of
meaning: denotative, connotative, structural and contextual.
Other Concepts Concerning Message:
1. Kinesics – Body communication
Types:
• Emblems (gestures translated into verbal code system)
• Illustrations (body movements that accompany speech)
• Affect display (body motions which indicate state of emotions)
• Regulators (gestures and facial movements which help control flow
of communication)
• Adaptory (more personal idiosyncratic movement and individual

48. develops)
2. Entropy
• Tendency of mass to break into parts
• Measure of capacity of system to undergo spontaneous charge
3. Meaning
• Thought, idea or information received and expressed by language
• Inherent in definition of language; end result of language
4. Semantic deferential
• Research scale employed to ascertain meaning people ascribe to
certain kinds of social object and relationships
5. Semantics
• Study between words and things described
• Two theoretical approaches: a) meaning – what information/ideas
are expressed; b) reference – what is the true meaning of words
6. Proxemics
• How one unconsciously structures space to convey meaning
• Dimensions are:
a. Postural – sex identifiers (posture and sex of source and receiver)
b. Sociofugal – societal orientation (physical directness of
communication; specifies relationship of person’s shoulders to
another)
c. Kinesthetic factor (closeness of two persons involved in
communication and potentials of holding, grasping, touching each
other)
d. Touch (amount and type of physical contact between parties)
e. Vision (visual contact between persons)
f. Thermal (amount of body heat of one perceived by the other)
g. Loudness (vocal volume)
h. Smell (detection of odor)
7. Paralanguage
• Non‐verbal cues which surround verbal system
• Vocal but non‐verbal dimension of speech
• Focus on manner it was said than what was said
8. Territoriality
• Person lays claim on particular space/territory and resets invasion
9. Proxemic Distance
• Four kinds: intimate, personal, social and public
• Indicates relationship between source and receiver
10. Common Field of Experience
• When person enters into communication situation, he/she assumes
something in common with the other to begin with (e.g. common
language or symbols whose meaning they share)
11. Referent
• Meaning anyone is able to read into signs depends on experience
with them and referent

49. 12. Presentation
• Manner of presentation of message (e.g. one‐sided vs. two‐sided,
etc.)
CHANNEL FACTORS
The channel is the medium used to transmit a message. It is the
effective link interconnecting the source‐receiver codes in a
communication structure through which messages flow.
1. Hypodermic Needle
• Audience is atomized mass of disconnected individuals
• Direct and immediate stimulus‐response relationship between
source and receiver of message
• Receivers are inactive, passive
2. Two‐step Flow
• Ideas often flow from mass media to opinion leaders and from them
to less active sections of population
• Opinion leader is one who tries to convince others of his or her
opinions or is sought out by others for opinions
3. Gatekeeper
• One who controls strategic position of channel
• May or may not transmit information within group and may not be
influential
4. Multiple Channels
• Use of many senses as possible
5. Noise
• Fidelity of message depends on quality of noise present during
transmission of message
EFFECTS FACTORS
The effect can be immediate or delayed. It is immediate when it
occurs as soon as the receiver accepts the message, when it is delayed
when the impact of the accepted message is felt after a length of
time.
If the effect elicited by the message is not equal to or more than the
purpose of communication, then, the communication has not been
effective.
Effects can also be either observable or non‐observable. Observable
effects are those immediately detectable through the senses of an
onlooker to the situation. Non‐observable or covert effects are those

50. not immediately detectable by the observer.
Communication can change five aspects and these can overlap. These
effects are change in attitude, opinion, perception, action and
emotion. Changes in opinion, perception and action are observable,
while changes in attitude are not, some emotional changes are
observable, others are not.
Other Concepts Concerning Effects:
a) Learning
• Process by which some aspects of human behavior is acquired or
changed through individual’s encounter with events in the
environment
• Responses:
a. Differential – difference in individual’s ability to respond,
readiness to respond, motivation to respond
b. Frames of references – principles are reinforcement (helpful in
establishing response), active participation (better than passive),
meaningful responses
c. Habitual – as rewarded responses increase, probability that
response be made increases
‐keep short interval between responses and reward for effective
building of habit patterns
d. Consequences – individuals tend to generalize responses they made
b) Balance
• Involves two persons, one as focus of analysis; a third element is
present which is an impersonal entity (e.g. physical object, idea,
event, etc.)
• The structure of focus of analysis representing relations among him
or her, the other person and the third entity is either balanced or
unbalanced
c) Interaction
a. Definition‐physical – when people are communicating, they rely on
physical existence of the other for production or reception of
messages; interdependent
b. Action‐reaction – action of source affects action of receiver and
vice‐versa
c. Interdependence of expectations – ability to project ourselves into
other people’s responsibilities
‐process through which we arrive at expectations, anticipations of
internal psychological states of persons
d. Interaction – two individuals make interferences about own roles
and take role of the other at the same time
‐six types: cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation, loving

51. and trusting
‐variables: attractiveness, proximity, reinforcement, similarity, and
complementarily
d) Feedback
• Information that comes back to sender
• Must be immediate, honest, clear and informative
e) Cognitive‐Dissonance
• Lack of harmony between what one knows and what one does or
has done
f) Cybernetics
• Correcting its course when it encounters cross‐currents
g) Functionalism
• Consequences that enhance or maintain health or integral
organization of referent individual, group or society
h) Homeostasis
• System has the tendency to retain its state or characteristics
i) Sleeper Effect
• Information originally rejected by receiver as coming from
“untrustworthy” source will later be accepted as receiver forgets
about the source
j) Hawthorne Effect
• The environment, source, message and channel or communication
situation may have no effect on individual who is the subject of study
k) Determinants of Effect
• Depends on characteristics of source, message, channel and receiver
and the resources available to receiver
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Intrapersonal ‐ A communication transaction that takes place
within individual
2. Interpersonal ‐ Communication between two or more people who
are conscious of each other’s presence. The physical proximity allows
them to interact on face‐to‐face basis to generate immediate
feedback; direct exchange between individuals who can be
designated into roles as source and audience
Types of interpersonal communication:
A. Face‐to‐Face. This occurs between two persons, or within a group,
as long as the communicators are able to see and interact with each
other as individuals. Examples of this are teacher‐student
consultations, group or community meetings, or discussions, and class
lectures.

52. B. Mediated. This occurs when a device such as a telephone or
computer is placed in between the source and audience. Examples of
this are telephone conversation, e‐mail, online chat, and letter
writing.
Interpersonal Communication
In this situation, the source and the receiver can:
• see each other
• Talk back and forth
• Interrupt each other
• Make responses that both can readily or immediately receive
Interpersonal channels of communication are those means of
transmitting or getting a message from one person to another, which
involves a face‐to‐face exchange. Comparatively, mass media
channels are those means of transmitting messages from one person
to another involving the use of mass media such as newspapers,
radio, television, etc.
3. Mass. Mass communication is a process directed toward relatively
large, heterogeneous and audiences who are known. Messages are
transmitted publicly to reach most number of audiences
simultaneously.
Media and new technology – new term for mass communication
• directed to general public and, therefore, highly impersonal; allows
large‐scale dissemination of messages to audiences who are dispersed
over wide geographical area.
• most common forms of mass media are
• print, i.e., newspapers and magazines
• broadcast, i.e., radio and television
• film
• Apart from these easily recognizable media, other forms are:
• music recordings
• advertising, and other strategies for product marketing and
publicity
4. Group and Team communication – transforms collection of
individuals into cohesive
group

53. • Group and organizational communication happens within and
between groups, organizations and institutions, also in face‐to‐face
or mediated situations:
• Face‐to‐Face. Group meetings, discussions, lectures, messages with
or without use of microphones
• Mediated. Some forms of media or communications technologies
used to disseminate messages. Depending on who are addressed by
message, can be internal or external.
• Internal. Communication is limited to the members of the group or
the organization. This happens when the members are provided with
information through standard memos and organizational newsletters.
• External. Communication is directed to non‐members – other
groups, organizations or general public. For example, media
announcements and press releases.
5. Public communication – public speaking
6. Organizational Communication ‐ Communication that happens in
professional settings
7. Intercultural communication ‐ communication among societies of
different cultures
8. Transpersonal communication – communicating with the personal
being
How Do We Communicate?
We communicate through symbols and non‐verbal language. A symbol
is any object, mode of conduct, or word, which a person acts as if it
were something else. Anything that has a meaning is a symbol. A
symbol is used to represent something.
Non‐verbal language includes kinesics, physical characteristics,
touching behavior, paralanguage, proxemics, artifacts and
environment factors.
Kinesics are motions of the body including the face. These may
include gait; movement of hands, arms and legs; gestures; facial
expressions, etc. these body motions provide extensive cues about a

54. person’s mood, intent and openness to interaction.
Physical characteristics may include body type, height, weight, color
of based largely on one’s stereotypes about any of those physical
characteristics. In most cultures, physical attractiveness facilitates
the building of self‐esteem and interpersonal relationships.
Touching is one of the five senses. Touching and being touched are
considered essential to healthy psychological growth. Touching is very
powerful means of expressing emotion, affection and reassurance.
Unfortunately, our culture does not encourage touching behaviors
except between intimate individuals. Puerto Ricans perform 180
touches per hour, France – 110 touches per hour, USA – 2 touches per
hour and England – 0.
Paralanguage refers to sounds that are not words and vocal qualities
such as pitch and rate. It deals with how things are said. It often
indicates a speaker’s mood. Our interpretation of messages depends
largely on cues of tone, infliction, rhythm, articulation and
resonance.
Proxemics is the distance we place in reference to other and how we
use and structure space. It provides cues to personal and cultural
preferences for interaction and privacy. The human use and
perceptions space vary among cultures. We may sit opposite others
(indicating hostility), beside them (indicating quality), or at an angle
to them (indicating cooperation. Territoriality refers to the tendency
of animals and humans to stake out personal territories.
Artifacts are personal objects that influence self‐presentation and
interaction. These may include jewelry, clothes, glasses, other
personal effects, etc. people express much of themselves through the
artifacts they select and the ways in which they manipulate them.
The environmental factors which we may or may not be able to
control include those elements in the setting that influence our
definitions or situations. These may include furniture, decorations,
sounds, movements, temperature, weather, etc.
What is communication and what it is not:
‐Not all communication has to be human communication
‐Not all participants in a communication process have to be presented
at the same time
‐It can take place over large distances of space and time
‐Not all communication takes place in words

55. ‐It does not always require two or more participants
‐Thinking is a form of communication
Therefore, Communication is a Process, meaning:
‐On‐going ‐No beginning, no end
‐Ever changing ‐Interdependent
‐Inter‐related ‐Cyclic
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
1. technical ‐ how accurate can message be transmitted
2. effectiveness – how effective does message affect behavior
3. physical – environmental, channel noise
4. psychological‐cultural – semantic factors within source/receiver
(emotional blocks,
stereotyping, charisma, etc)
a) channel noise ‐ static, wrong spelling
b) environmental factors/conditions
c) semantic ‐ how precise the meaning is conveyed; different
meanings, double meanings
Semantic noise includes:
• Distraction
• Differences in the use of the language code
• Emphasizing the wrong part of the message
• Attitude towards the sender
• Attitude towards the message
5. social ‐others that arise from communicators’ role and stature
6. others ‐ ethnocentrism, experiences
AUDIO‐VISUAL AIDS IN EXTENSION
Visual aids are devices used by extension agents to help to get their
message across to rural audience since among the five senses, the
most important in learning are sight and hearing; devices which
utilize the sense of sight to improve communication
(Forms, representatives or reproduction of concepts or things are
termed as Primary Visuals)
Kinds of Visual Aids:
1. Non‐projected visuals
• Chalkboards