This document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 4 of the textbook "Business Statistics, 6th ed." by Ken Black. It covers:
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- Concepts like sample spaces, events, mutually exclusive and independent events, and complementary events.
- Laws of probability, including the general laws of addition and multiplication, and how to apply them to probability problems and matrices.
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InstructionDue Date 6 pm on October 28 (Wed)Part IProbability a.docxdirkrplav
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Part IProbability and Sampling Distributions1.Thinking about probability statements. Probability is measure of how likely an event is to occur. Match one of probabilities that follow with each statement of likelihood given (The probability is usually a more exact measure of likelihood than is the verbal statement.)Answer0 0.01 0.3 0.6 0.99 1(a) This event is impossible. It can never occur.(b) This event is certain. It will occur on every trial.(c) This event is very unlikely, but it will occur once in a while in a long sequence of trials.(d) This event will occur more often that not.2. Spill or Spell? Spell-checking software catches "nonword errors" that result in a string of letters that is not a word, as when "the" is typed as "the." When undergraduates are asked to write a 250-word essay (without spell-checking), the number X of nonword errors has the following distribution:Value of X01234Probability0.10.20.30.30.1(a) Check that this distribution satisfies the two requirements for a legitimate assignment of probabilities to individual outcomes.(b) Write the event "at least one nonword error" in term of X (for example, P(X >3)). What is the probability of this event?(c) Describe the event X ≤ 2 in words. What is its probability? 3. Discrete or continuous? For each exercise listed below, decide whether the random variable described is discrete or continuous and explains the sample space.(a) Choose a student in your class at random. Ask how much time that student spent studying during the past 24 hours.(b) In a test of a new package design, you drop a carton of a dozen eggs from a height of 1 foot and count the number of broken eggs.(c) A nutrition researcher feeds a new diet to a young male white rat. The response variable is the weight (in grams) that the rat gains in 8 weeks.4. Tossing Coins(a) The distribution of the count X of heads in a single coin toss will be as follows. Find the mean number of heads and the variance for a single coin toss.Number of Heads (Xi)01mean:Probability (Pi)0.50.5variance:(b) The distribution of the count X of heads in four tosses of a balanced coin was as follows but some missing probabilities. Fill in the blanks and then find the mean number of heads and the variance for the distribution with assumption that the tosses are independent of each other.Number of Heads (Xi)01234mean:Probability (Pi)0.06250.0625variance:(c) Show that the two results of the means (i.e. single toss and four tosses) are related by the addition rule for means. (d) Show that the two results of the variances (i.e. single toss and four tosses) are related by the addition rule for variances (note: It was assumed that the tosses are independent of each other). 5. Generating a sampling distribution. Let's illustrate the idea of a sampling distribution in the case of a very small sample from a very small .
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Applied Business Statistics ,ken black , ch 4
1. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1
Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Business Statistics, 6th ed.
by Ken Black
Chapter 4
Introduction to
Basic Probability
2. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2
Learning Objectives
Comprehend the different ways of assigning
probability.
Understand and apply marginal, union, joint, and
conditional probabilities.
Select the appropriate law of probability to use in
solving problems.
Solve problems using the laws of probability
including the laws of addition, multiplication and
conditional probability
Revise probabilities using Bayes’ rule.
3. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3
Probability
Probability – probability of occurrences are
assigned to the inferential process under
conditions of uncertainty
4. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4
Methods of Assigning Probabilities
Classical method of assigning probability
(rules and laws)
Relative frequency of occurrence
(cumulated historical data)
Subjective Probability (personal intuition
or reasoning)
5. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 5
Classical Probability
P E
N
Where
N
en( )
:
=
=
=
total number of outcomes
number of outcomes in Een
6. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6
Number of outcomes leading to the event divided by
the total number of outcomes possible
Each outcome is equally likely
Determined a priori -- before performing the
experiment
Applicable to games of chance
Objective -- everyone correctly using the method
assigns an identical probability
Classical Probability
7. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 7
Relative Frequency of Occurrence method – the
probability of an event is equal to the number of
times the event has occurred in the past divided by
the total number of opportunities for the event to
have occurred
Frequency of occurrence is based on what has
happened in the past
Relative Frequency Probability
8. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 8
Eproducing
outcomesofnumber
trialsofnumbertotal
:
)(
e
=
=
=
n
n
N
Where
N
EP e
Relative Frequency Probability
Based on historical data
Computed after
performing the
experiment
Number of times an
event occurred divided
by the number of trials
Objective -- everyone
correctly using the
method assigns an
identical probability
9. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9
Subjective Probability - Comes from a person’s
intuition or reasoning
Subjective -- different individuals may (correctly or
incorrectly) assign different numeric probabilities to
the same event
Degree of belief in the results of the event
Useful for unique (single-trial) experiments
New product introduction
Site selection decisions
Sporting events
Subjective Probability
10. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 10
Experiment – is a process that produces an outcome
Event – an outcome of an experiment
Elementary event – events that cannot be
decomposed or broken down into other events
Sample Space – a complete roster/listing of all
elementary events for an experiment
Trial: one repetition of the process
Structure of Probability
11. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11
Set Notation – the use of braces to group members
The UNION of x, y is formed by combining elements from
both sets, and is denoted by x U y. Read as “x or y.”
An INTERSECTION is denoted x ∩ y.
The symbol is read as “and”. “x and y”
Structure of Probability
12. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12
Mutually Exclusive Events – events such that the
occurrence of one precludes the occurrence of the
other
These events have no intersection
Independent Events – the occurrence or
nonoccurrence of one has no affect on the occurrence
of the others
Structure of Probability
13. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 13
Structure of Probability
Collectively Exhaustive Events – listing of all possible
elementary events for an experiment
Complementary Events – two events, one of which
comprises all the elementary events of an
experiment that are not in the other event
14. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 14
The set of all elementary events for an experiment
Methods for describing a sample space
roster or listing
tree diagram
set builder notation
Venn diagram
Sample Space
15. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 15
Family
Children in
Household
Number of
Automobiles
A
B
C
D
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
3
2
1
2
Listing of Sample Space
(A,B), (A,C), (A,D),
(B,A), (B,C), (B,D),
(C,A), (C,B), (C,D),
(D,A), (D,B), (D,C)
Experiment: randomly select, without replacement,
two families from the residents of Tiny Town
Each ordered pair in the sample space is an
elementary event, for example -- (D,C)
Sample Space: Roster Example
16. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 16
S = {(x,y) | x is the family selected on the first draw,
and y is the family selected on the second draw}
Concise description of large sample spaces
Sample Space: Set Notation for
Random Sample of Two Families
17. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 17
9,7,6,5,4,3,2,1
6,5,4,3,2
9,7,4,1
=
=
=
YX
Y
X
C IBM DEC Apple
F Apple Grape Lime
C F IBM DEC Apple Grape Lime
=
=
=
, ,
, ,
, , , ,
YX
The union of two sets contains an instance of each
element of the two sets.
Union of Sets
18. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 18
X
Y
X Y
=
=
=
1 4 7 9
2 3 4 5 6
4
, , ,
, , , ,
YX
C IBM DEC Apple
F Apple Grape Lime
C F Apple
=
=
=
, ,
, ,
X Y
The intersection of two sets contains only those
element common to the two sets.
Intersection of Sets
19. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 19
X
Y
X Y
=
=
=
1 7 9
2 3 4 5 6
, ,
, , , ,
=
=
=
FC
LimeGrapeF
AppleDECIBMC
,
,,
YX
0)( =YXP
Events with no common outcomes
Occurrence of one event precludes the occurrence
of the other event
Mutually Exclusive Events
20. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 20
Independent Events
P X Y P X and P Y X P Y( | ) ( ) ( | ) ( )= =
Occurrence of one event does not affect the
occurrence or nonoccurrence of the other event
The conditional probability of X given Y is equal to
the marginal probability of X.
The conditional probability of Y given X is equal to
the marginal probability of Y.
21. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 21
Collectively Exhaustive Events
E1 E2 E3
Sample Space with three
collectively exhaustive events
Contains all elementary events for an experiment
22. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 22
Complementary Events
Sample
Space
A
P Sample Space( ) = 1
P A P A( ) ( ) = −1
A
All elementary events not in the event ‘A’ are in its
complementary event.
23. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 23
Counting the Possibilities
mn Rule
Sampling from a Population with Replacement
Combinations: Sampling from a Population without
Replacement
24. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 24
mn Rule
If an operation can be done m ways and a second
operation can be done n ways, then there are mn
ways for the two operations to occur in order.
A cafeteria offers 5 salads, 4 meats, 8 vegetables, 3
breads, 4 desserts, and 3 drinks. A meal is two
servings of vegetables, which may be identical.
How many meals are available?
5 * 4 * 8 * 3 * 4 * 3 = 5760
25. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 25
Combinations: Sampling from a
Population without Replacement
This counting method uses combinations
Selecting n items from a population of N
without replacement
26. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 26
Combinations
Combinations – sampling “n” items from a
population size N without replacement provides the
formula shown below
A tray contains 1,000 individual tax returns. If 3
returns are randomly selected without replacement
from the tray, how many possible samples are there?
0166,167,00
)!31000(!3
!1000
)!(!
!
=
−
=
−
=
=
nNn
N
n
N
nCr
27. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 27
Combinations: Sampling from a
Population without Replacement
For example, suppose a small law firm has 16
employees and three are to be selected randomly to
represent the company at the annual meeting of the
American Bar Association.
How many different combinations of lawyers could
be sent to the meeting?
Answer: NCn = 16C3 = 16!/(3!13!) = 560.
28. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 28
Four Types of Probability
Marginal
The probability
of X occurring
Union
The probability
of X or Y
occurring
Joint
The probability
of X and Y
occurring
Conditional
The probability
of X occurring
given that Y
has occurred
YX YX
Y
X
)(XP P X Y( ) P X Y( ) P X Y( | )
29. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 29
General Law of Addition
P X Y P X P Y P X Y( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + −
YX
30. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 30
General Law of Addition -- Example
)()()()( SNPSPNPSNP −+=
81.0
56.67.70.)(
56.)(
67.)(
70.)(
=
−+=
=
=
=
SNP
SNP
SP
NPSN
.56
.67.70
31. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 31
81.
56.67.70.
)()()()(
=
−+=
−+= SNPSPNPSNP
.11 .19 .30
.56 .14 .70
.67 .33 1.00
Increase
Storage Space
Yes No Total
Yes
No
Total
Noise
Reduction
Office Design Problem Probability Matrix
32. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 32
If a worker is randomly selected from the company
described in Demonstration Problem 4.1, what is the
probability that the worker is either technical or
clerical? What is the probability that the worker is
either a professional or a clerical?
Demonstration problem 4.3
33. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 33
Examine the raw value matrix of the company’s human
resources data shown in Demonstration Problem 4.1. In
many raw value and probability matrices like this one, the
rows are non-overlapping or mutually exclusive, as are
the columns. In this matrix, a worker can be classified as
being in only one type of position and as either male or
female but not both. Thus, the categories of type of
position are mutually exclusive, as are the categories of
sex, and the special law of addition can be applied to the
human resource data to determine the union
probabilities.
Demonstration problem 4.3
34. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 34
Demonstration problem 4.3
Let T denote technical, C denote clerical, and P denote
professional. The probability that a worker is either
technical or clerical is
P(T U C) = P (T) + P (C) = 69/155 + 31/155 = 100/155 = .645
The probability that a worker is either professional or
clerical is
P (P U C) = P (P) + P (C) = 44/155 + 31/155 = 75/155 = .484
35. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 35
P T C P T P C( ) ( ) ( )
.
= +
= +
=
69
155
31
155
645
Demonstration Problem 4.3
Type of Gender
Position Male Female Total
Managerial 8 3 11
Professional 31 13 44
Technical 52 17 69
Clerical 9 22 31
Total 100 55 155
36. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 36
Type of Gender
Position Male Female Total
Managerial 8 3 11
Professional 31 13 44
Technical 52 17 69
Clerical 9 22 31
Total 100 55 155
P P C P P P C( ) ( ) ( )
.
= +
= +
=
44
155
31
155
484
Demonstration Problem 4.3
37. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 37
)|()()|()()( YXPYPXYPXPYXP ==
P M
P S M
P M S P M P S M
( ) .
( | ) .
( ) ( ) ( | )
( . )( . ) .
= =
=
=
= =
80
140
0 5714
0 20
0 5714 0 20 0 1143
Law of Multiplication
Demonstration Problem 4.5
38. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 38
Law of Multiplication
The intersection of two events is called the joint
probability
General law of multiplication is used to find the joint
probability
General law of multiplication gives the probability
that both events x and y will occur at the same time
P(x|y) is a conditional probability that can be stated
as the probability of x given y
39. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 39
Law of Multiplication
If a probability matrix is constructed for a problem,
the easiest way to solve for the joint probability is to
find the appropriate cell in the matrix and select the
answer
40. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 40
Total
.7857
Yes No
.4571 .3286
.1143 .1000 .2143
.5714 .4286 1.00
Married
Yes
No
Total
Supervisor
Probability Matrix
of Employees
20.0)|(
5714.0
140
80
)(
2143.0
140
30
)(
=
==
==
MSP
MP
SP
P M S P M P S M( ) ( ) ( | )
( . )( . ) .
=
= =0 5714 0 20 0 1143
P M S P M P M S
P M S P S P M S
P M P M
( ) ( ) ( )
. . .
( ) ( ) ( )
. . .
( ) ( )
. .
= −
= − =
= −
= − =
= −
= − =
0 5714 0 1143 0 4571
0 2143 0 1143 0 1000
1
1 0 5714 0 4286
3286.04571.07857.0
)()()(
7857.02143.01
)(1)(
=−=
−=
=−=
−=
SMPSPSMP
SPSP
Law of Multiplication
Demonstration Problem 4.5
41. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 41
Law of Conditional Probability
Conditional probability are based on the prior
knowledge you have on one of the two events being
studied
If X and Y are two events, the conditional probability
of X occurring given that Y is known or has occurred
is expressed as P(X|Y)
42. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 42
)(
)()|(
)(
)(
)|(
YP
XPXYP
YP
YXP
YXP
=
=
The conditional probability of X given Y is the joint
probability of X and Y divided by the marginal
probability of Y.
Law of Conditional Probability
43. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 43
Law of Conditional Probability
70% of respondents believe noise reduction would
improve productivity.
56% of respondents believed both noise reduction
and increased storage space would improve
productivity
A worker is selected randomly and asked about
changes in the office design
What is the probability that a randomly selected
person believes storage space would improve
productivity given that the person believes noise
reduction improves productivity?
44. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 44
P N
P N S
P S N
P N S
P N
( ) .
( ) .
( | )
( )
( )
.
.
.
=
=
=
=
=
70
56
56
70
80
NS
.56
.70
Law of Conditional Probability
45. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 45
Independent Events
When X and Y are independent, the conditional
probability is solved as a marginal probability
46. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 46
Geographic Location
Northeast
D
Southeast
E
Midwest
F
West
G
Finance A .12 .05 .04 .07 .28
Manufacturing B .15 .03 .11 .06 .35
Communications C .14 .09 .06 .08 .37
.41 .17 .21 .21 1.00
P A G
P A G
P G
P A
P A G P A
( | )
( )
( )
.
.
. ( ) .
( | ) . ( ) .
=
= = =
= =
007
021
033 028
033 028
Independent Events
Demonstration Problem 4.10
47. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 47
Revision of Probabilities: Bayes’ Rule
)()|()()|()()|(
)()|(
)|(
2211 nn
ii
i
XPXYPXPXYPXPXYP
XPXYP
YXP
++
=
An extension to the conditional law of probabilities
Enables revision of original probabilities with new
information
48. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 48
Bayes’ Rule
Bays’ rule – extends the use of the law of conditional
probabilities to all revision of original probabilities
with new information
49. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 49
Bayes’ Rule
Note, the numerator of Bayes’ Rule and the law of
conditional probability are the same
The denominator is a collective exhaustive listing of
mutually exclusive outcomes of Y
The denominator is a weighted average of the conditional
probabilities with the weights being the prior probabilities
of the corresponding event
50. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 50
Revision of Probabilities
with Bayes’ Rule: Ribbon Problem
P Alamo
P SouthJersey
P d Alamo
P d SouthJersey
P Alamo d
P d Alamo P Alamo
P d Alamo P Alamo P d SouthJersey P SouthJersey
P SouthJerseyd
P d SouthJersey P SouthJersey
P d Alamo P Alamo P d SouthJersey P SouthJersey
( ) .
( ) .
( | ) .
( | ) .
( | )
( | ) ( )
( | ) ( ) ( | ) ( )
( . )( . )
( . )( . ) ( . )( . )
.
( | )
( | ) ( )
( | ) ( ) ( | ) ( )
( . )( . )
( .
=
=
=
=
=
+
=
+
=
=
+
=
0 65
0 35
0 08
0 12
0 08 0 65
0 08 0 65 0 12 0 35
0 553
0 12 0 35
0 08)( . ) ( . )( . )
.
0 65 0 12 0 35
0 447
+
=
51. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 51
Revision of Probabilities
with Bayes’ Rule: Ribbon Problem
Conditional
Probability
0.052
0.042
0.094
0.65
0.35
0.08
0.12
0.052
0.094
=0.553
0.042
0.094
=0.447
Alamo
South Jersey
Event
Prior
Probability
P Ei( )
Joint
Probability
P E di( )
Revised
Probability
P E di( | )P d Ei( | )
52. Copyright 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 52
Revision of Probabilities
with Bayes’ Rule: Ribbon Problem
Alamo
0.65
South
Jersey
0.35
Defective
0.08
Defective
0.12
Acceptable
0.92
Acceptable
0.88
0.052
0.042
+ 0.094