animal nutrition part 2.pdf

Animal Nutrition Dr. Manoj karki
Unit: 7 2022/8/6
Nutritional requirement of Animals
FEEDING STANDARDS
Feedings standards are the tables which indicates the quantities of nutrients to
be fed to the various classes of livestock for different physiological functions
like growth, maintenance, lactation, egg production and wool growth.
There are two terms which has been used in the feeding standards. One is the
nutrient allowance and another is the nutrient requirements. The former gives
an extra allowance of nutrient over the requirement which gives a margin of
safety whereas latter term gives the requirement for optimum production.
Feeding standards
A. Comparative type B. Digestible- Nutrient
system
C. Production-value
type
1. Hay standard
2. Scandinavian“feed
unit”
Standard
1. Grouven’s Feeding
system
2. Wolff’s feeding
standard
3. Wolff’s Lehmann
feeding standard
4. Haeckers’s Feeding
standard
5. Savage feeding
standard
6. Morrison standard
7. National Research
Council standard
8. Japanese feeding
standard
9. Indian standard
1. Kellner-feeding
standard
2. Armsby feeding std
3. Agricultural Research
Council Standard.

Nutrient requirement define the specific nutrient and amount that must be
included in complete and balance diet for healthy animals. Nutrient
requirement of animals are dependent on mature cow size, stage of gestation,
and milk production potential. As a female animals goes through the
production cycle of weaning, gestation, calving, lactation, nutrient demands
increase and or decrease with each stage of the cycle.
Differences of nutrient requirement of dairy cattle and buffalo:
1. Buffalo have high efficiency of feed utilization when feed on high
roughage (fibers) diets
2. Large rumen volume
3. High rate of salivation
4. Slow rumen motility
5. Lesser dry matter intake per unit body weight
Dry matter in animal feeding:
In general terms, the weight of the specific feed ingredients comes from
either moisture in the feed or from the dry matter. Dry matter refers to
material remaining after removal of water and the moisture content reflect the
amount of water present in the feed ingredients. The nutrient in feed requires
by the animals for maintenance, growth, pregnancy and lactation are the part
of dry portion of the feed.
Water intake by the animals:
Water Is not the nutrient but it is important in nutrient utilization. The amount
of water in a particular animals species is remarkably constant. It has been
reported that the animal may survive even after loosing all the body fat but a
loss exceeding more than 10 percent of the water may be fatal and result
death.

Nutrient requirement of dairy cattle and buffalo:
Dry matter requirement:
It is important to meet the dry matter (DM) requirement in the animal diet to
satisfy the animals. The DM requirement varies from 2.2-3.0 percent of live
weight of the animals. The DM requires the various with age, average daily
gain (g/d) stage of pregnancy (early, mid and late), lactation.
Nutrient requirement: basically the nutrient requirement of cattle and buffalo
have been classified as
 Maintenance
 Growth
 Pregnancy
 Production (milk and meat)
 Breeding
Nutrient requirement are calculated using metabolic body size of W0.75
Nutrient requirement for Maintenance:
1. Energy requirement for maintenance:
Energy requirement for maintaenance has been based on Basal
metabolic rate (BMR) of the animals. Maintenance energy is required
to support activities of various organ, function of tissues and
biochemical reaction in cells, under thermal natural enviromnet without
any stress, excitement or any external physical activities.
A suitable energy requirement for our condition (including SAARC
countries) :
Indigenous cattle and buffalo : 61-104 Kcal ME/Kg W0.75
During lactation: 113-160 Kcal ME/kg W 0.75

Maintenance requirement for DM, energy and protein of lactating
cattle and buffalo per day:
BW
(KG)
DM requirement Nutrient requirement
% of live
WT
DM
intake
(kg)
TDN
(KG)
ME
(Mcal)
MP
(G)
RDP
(G)
CP (G)
200 4.32 1.92 6.94 141 220 250
250 5.4 2.28 8.24 168 260 306
300 6.48 2.63 9.47 191 298 351
350 7.56 2.97 10.67 214 335 394
400 8.64 3.27 11.82 237 370 436
450 9.73 3.58 12.94 259 405 476
500 10.8 3.88 14.4 280 438 515
Note: DM : dry matter, TDN: total digestible nutrition, ME: Metabolized
Energy, RDP: rumen digestible protein, CP: crude protein, MP: metabolized
protein
2. Protein requirement:
protein are the mineral that are needed by the animals to build its own
tissue ( muscle, tendons etc..) and to replace worn out cells.
 Protein requirement for growth
 Protein requirement for maintenance
 Protein requirement for pregnancy (last 3 month)
 Protein requirement for lactation

3. Nutrient requirement of lactating animals:
Feeding traditional cows and buffalo: feed intake decrease around
15% during the last week before calving. Therefore, it is recommended
that the animals in this stage should get laxative feed (such as wheat
bran/ molassses) for a week before calving.
Composition of mineral mixture:
 Calcium chloride= 33.4 %
 Magnesium chloride = 33.3%
 Sodium chloride= 18.3%
 Magnesium sulphate= 8.4%
 Calcium hydrogen phosphate: 6.7 %
Feeding cows and buffalo during early lactation:
Dry matter intake falls around 15-20% after parturition while the nutrient for
milk synthesis continue to increase up to 6-7 weeks post parturition. During
early lactation, animals should be fed best quality of green forage/ legumes
and good quality concentrate along with mineral supplement to minimize the
negative energy balance.
Feeding during pregnancy:
After 6 month of pregnancy the growth of fetus increase significantly. The
nutrient requirement is given below.
Pregnancy requirement of energy and protein for cattle/ day:
Month of
gestation
DM (kg) TDN
(Mcal)
ME (g) MP (g) CP (g)
6-7 0.85 0.64 2.30 109 169
7-8 0.99 0.74 2.67 143 216
8-9 1.13 0.84 3.05 178 263
Table: Feeding during pregnancy

Feeding of calves:
At birth, calves are similar to non ruminant animals, begin in its pre ruminant
stage. This stage lasts up to 3 month of age. During this stage, the first of the
fourth compartment of the compounded stomach, the rumen is under
developed, while the fourth compartment like abomasum, is active and make
upto 70 % of the total volume. The rumen is very small (1 litter capacity) in
the new born calf and develops into the most important of the gut (5-30 litter)
by 3 month of age.
Phase of calf and feeding system:
Feeding phase Description
Liquid feeding phase Milk and milk replacer fulfill the requirement
of essential nutrient
Transition phase Liquid diet plus starter solid feed, both
contribute to meet the nutrient requirement of
calves
Ruminant phase The calf derives the nutrients from solid feeds,
mainly through microbial fermentation in the
reticulo rumen.
Nutrient requirement for pre ruminant calves:
AGE BW
(kg)
ADG
(G)
CP
(G)
DCP
(G)
TDN
(G)
ME
(Mcal)
Ca
(g)
P (g) Vit
A
(G)
Vit
D (g)
0-15 25 200 114 80 400 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 200
16-
30
40 300 129 90 500 1.7 3 2 1.5 250
30-
60
50 350 180 125 800 2.4 3.5 2.5 1.7 300
60-
90
60 400 215 150 1000 3.6 3.8 3.8 2 350
Note: ADG: Average daily gain, DCP: digestible crude protein

Nutrient requirement for growth:
A growth target should be fixed, and accordingly feeding strategy should be
implemented to get better result in terms of the weight gain of growing cattle
and buffalo calf and heifer.
Growth target at different age for cross breed cattle and murrah buffalo:
Parameter Cattle Buffalo
Birth weight of calf (kg) 25 30
Body weight gain
between 0-6 month (kg)
45 54
Body weight gain
between 0-12 month
(kg)
72 99
Body weight gain
between 12-(24 kg)
198 252
Total body weight at 24
month of age (kg)
340 435
Dry matter, energy and protein requirement of female cattle and buffalo
including calves:
BW
(kg)
Weight(kg/d) DM
(kg)
TDN
(KG)
ME
(Mcal)
MP(G) RDP
(G)
RUP
(G)
CP
(G)
70 0.3 1.8 1.1 4.19 151 235 100 335
100 0.3 2.9 1.4 5.2 168 262 94 357
200 0.5 5 2.7 9.9 267 418 108 525
300 0.5 7.2 3.1 13 310 484 85 567
400 0.7 8.8 5 18 393 613 108 733
500 0.7 11 5.8 21 433 677 119 798
Note: RDP: rumen degradable protein, RUP: rumen undegradable protein

Unit: 7 Nutrient requirements of poultry 2022/8/7
 Nutrient requirement are the amount of nutrients required by poultry to
support normal function.
 Requirement may be expressed in quantities of nutrients or in dietary
proportion
There are six classes of nutrients:
1. Carbohydrates: the major source of energy for poultry. Most of the
carbohydrate in poultry diets is provided by cereals grain.
2. Fat: provides energy and essential fatty acid that are required for some
bodily processes.
3. Proteins: required for the synthesis of body tissue (particularly muscle),
physiological molecules, (such as hormones, enzymes), feathers, and for
eggs products. Protein also provide small amount of energy
4. Vitamins: organic chemical (carbon) which help to control body process
and are required in small amount for normal health and growth.
5. Minerals: inorganic chemicals, (not carbon) which helps control body
process and are required for normal health and growth
6. Water: water is an essential nutrient life. The rule of thumb for water
intake is that the water intake is usually 1.5-2 times feed intake.
Nutrient requirement for poultry:
Broiler feed (0-6 weeks) Layer feed
Nutrients Pre-
starter
(0-7
days)
Starter
(8-21
days)
Finisher
(22-42
days)
Chicks
(0-8
weeks)
Grower
(9-20
weeks)
Layers
phase-1
(21-45
weeks)
Layers
phase -2
(48-72
weeks)
Moisture
max %
11 11 11 11 11 11 11

ME
(Kcal/kg)
3000 3100 3200 2800 2500 2600 2400
CP % 23 22 20 20 16 16 16
Salt as
(NaCl)
max%
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 .5
Crude
fiber %
5 5 5 7 9 9 10
Note: nutrient requirement for moisture, cp, cf, salt for broiler and layers
Broiler feed (0-6 weeks) Layer feed
Nutrients Pre-
starter
(0-7
days)
Starter
(8-21
days)
Finisher
(22-42
days)
Chicks
(0-8
weeks)
Grower
(9-20
weeks)
Layers
phase-1
(21-45
weeks)
Layers
phase -2
(48-72
weeks)
Calcium min
%
1 1 1 1 1 3 3.5
Phosphorous
min %
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.65 0.65 0.65

Lysine min
%
1.3 1.2 1 1 0.7 0.7 0.65
Methionine
min %
0.5 0.5 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.35 0.30
Aflatoxin
B1 max
(ppb)
20 20 20 20 20 20 20
Linoleic
acid min %
1.1 1.1 1.1 1 1 1 1
Nutrient requirement for mineral, phosphorus for layers and broiler
Factors affecting the nutrient requirement of poultry:
 Genetics: species, breed
 Age: body weight, stage of maturity
 Sex: sexes have only small differences in their nutrient requirement
 Reproductive stages: level of egg production in hens and sexual activiy
in male
 Ambient temperature: increase energy requirement to maintain normal
body temperature in cold temperatre and the opposite in the hot condition
 Health status: disease conditions require an increase intake of some
nutrients, commonly vitamins
Egg production:
 Good flocks of layers produce about 250 eggs per bird per year. I,e (70
% production)
 Their egg weight on average 57 g

 Bird start laying at around 20-21 weeks of age and continue for 52 weeks
but laying fewer eggs near the molting period
 On average a bird produce one egg per day
 Not all birds start to lay exactly when they are 21 weeks old
 In temperature climates bird can produce 250-300 eggs per year
Nutrient requirement in Swine:
Swine/ pigs require many nutrient for their maintenance, growth and
production
Carbohydrate requirement:
 Pig can utilize crude fibers to a lower extent
 The utilization of fiber by the pig depends on the age of and weight
 For growing and finishing pigs 5-6 % crude fibers level in their diet
 In show, 10-12% level of CF in diet can be well tolerated.
Fat requirement:
 When high fat diets are feed to pigs, there is deposition of excessive fat
inside the body
 If the feed contains higher concentration of short chained fatty acid
(soybean, groundnut) there is a production of soft pork which is not
desirable
 Pigs fed on a ration containing 0.5 % fat, makes a satisfactory gain and
store normal amount of body fat
 However, the practical level of fat inclusion is higher than this ie, about
4%

Protein requirement:
 In swine/ pig feeding it is important to provide good quality of protein in
the ration
 All essential amino protein should be present in right quality and proper
balance
 Even if one essential amino acid is lacking it will cause markes reduction
in the feed intake which will affect the growth and production.
 A combination of animals and vegetable protein in a pigs det will provide
all essential amino acids in proper proportion.
The nutrient requirement in swine:
Nutrients Requirement
Starter/creep
feed
Growth
meal
Finishing/breeding
meal
Moisture content
Max%
11 11 11
Crude protein min % 20 18 16
Crude fat % 2 2 2
Crude fiber% 5 6 8
Metabolic energy
(Kcal/kg)
3360 3170 3170
Total ash (max %) 8 8 8

Protein requirement of swine:
Mineral requirement of swine:
 If swine is fed on concentrate alone calcium is more likely to be deficient
and if fed only on pasture, phosphorous deficiency results
 The recommended calcium and phosphorous level for swine diet are:
Category of pig Weight Ca% P%
Growing and
fattening pigs
(5-10 kg) 0.80 0.60
10-45 kg 0.65 0.50
45-90 kg 0.50 0.40
Gilts and sow
breed
100-130 kg 0.50 0.50
Lactating 130-150 kg 0.60 0.40
Piglet anemia:
 Seen in piglets, housed in concrete floors under intensive farming system
 Anemic piglets are listless and flabby with wrinkled skin and unhealthy
looking hair coat
S.N Class of pig % protein in diet
1 Pigs -pre weaning/ creep feeed 18-22
2 Weaned pig 18
3 Growing pig 44 kg bwt 14
4 Breed gilts 15
5 sows 14
6 Breeding boars 14
7 Lactating sow 15

 At birth, piglet contain 50 mg iron and daily requirement is 7 mg and
abut 1 mg is supplied in daily sow milk consumed by the piglet
 So defect of 6mg/day will exhaust the body stores within a week if iron
is not provided
 This condition can be prevented by giving iron orally or by injection
 Iron dextrose 100mg on the third day of birth followed by 50 mg on 21
day prevents anemia
 Painting the udder of the sow with a pate of ferrous sulphate cause intake
of iron when the piglet suckless its mother and helps to prevent thumps.
Creep ration:
 The practice of self feeding of concentrates to young ones away from
their mother is called creep feeding
 It is usually given in a separate enclosure which the sow cannot access
 In pig it is given from 2nd
week of age
 Creep feed should contain 19-20 % CP and 3360 Kcal/kg of ME
 Major portion of creep feed should be of animals origin
 The feed should contain appropriate quantity of vitamins and minerals
 Dry creep feed are called as pre- starter feed.
Creep feed:
S.N Ingredients Parts
1 Ground yellow maize 40
2 Skim milk 10
3 Ground nut oil cake 10
4 Sesame oil cake 10
5 Wheat bran 10
6 Molassses 10
7 Fish meal 6

8 Mineral misxture 2
Nutrient requirement in equine:
Energy:
 Energy requirements are influences by age and work degree and its
duration
 Mature mares in the first 2 trimester of pregnancy require less energy
 Young growing horse, horse at work and lactating should be
supplemented with densified energy sources to meet their energy
requirement
Protein:
 Horse use protein to synthesize various body tissues
 Protein are composed of amino acid of varying compositing
 Protein requirement vary for different classes of horse
 Young, growing horses have a higher requirement for protein
 Mature horse have a much lower requirement for protein young because
it needs for maintenance of body tissue rather than growing new tissue.
Nutrition requirement for different working horses:
Working
horse
Digestible
energy
(Mcal/day)
Crude protein
(gm)
Calcium (g) Phosphorous
(g)
Light
exercise
20 750 30 18
Moderate
exercise
23 850 35 21

Heavy
exercise
27 950 40 29
Nutrient requirement for mature horse of different body weight
Size of horse DE
(Mcal/kg)
CP (gm) Calcium
(gm)
Phosphorous
(g)
Maintenance
(500kg)
15 600 18 13
Maintenance
(550 kg)
16.5 700 20 14
Maintenance
(600kg)
18 750 22 15
Nutrient requirement for sheep and goat:
Dry matter requirement:
The dry matter intake (DM) is an important consideration since it reflect the
capacity in terms of voluntary feed intake to utilize the feeds. The average
dry matter intake in goat is 3.21 percent of liv weight of goat or 66-70 gram
DM /Wkg 0.75 .
. the dry matter required by goat is usually widely used in feed
formulation of goats. For maintenance DM requirement is 66 to 70 g/kg w
0.75.

Minerals:
The mineral required by goats , example of 60 kg Bwt of goat is 3.50 ca and
2.55 gm phosphorous. In addition to these two minerals, sodium,chloride,
magnesium, potassium and sulfur need to supply in liberal amount. Several
other mineral such as iron, iodine, copper, molybendium, ainc, magnese,
cobalt, selenium are essential in trace amount.
Feeding kids
Colostrum feeding: is a milky fluid that release by mammals that have
recently given birth before breast milk production begins. It is an important
source of nutrient that promotes growth and fight disease in infants. It contain
important nutrient help the kids to grow, as well as antibodies that enable to
the animals to resist disease in the first few month of life. Kids and other
farm animals are born without antibodies. Kids that don’t get enough
colostrum can soon become weak and die.
Hogget feeding (4 -6 month of age)

Unit 8.
Introduction to the fodder production
Forage is the edible herbage eaten by the animals. The term forage is used for roughages. The
forage is bulky feed either due to lightweights of dry forage or due to high moisture and loose
structure of green herbage. Nutrient density varies from very low feeding value of straw to very
high nutritional value comparable with many concentrates such as berseem, lucerne and well
cobbed green maize, harvested at milk stage.
Total pasture area of Nepal: 17, 57,345 ha.
Approximate animal feed sources:
Agricultural bi-products: 31.5 %
Forest: 50 %
Pasture: 18.5 %
Feed stuff: Material fed to animals for the purpose of sustaining growth & development.
Dry matter: The part of feed that is not water, sometimes referred to as total solid.
Nutrient: Any chemical compound having specific function is the nutritive support of animal
life.
Dry matter requirement: -
Zebu cattle:- 2-2.5 kg. DM. /100 kg. body weight.
Buffalo & cross bred:- 2.5-3 kg. /100 kg. body weight.
Importance of forage crops:
1. These are highly digestible when harvested at proper time.
2. Grass proteins are particularly rich in ariginine and also contain glutamic acid and lysine.
3. Green fodder contain higher amount of carotene.
4. Green fodder reduces the cost of production of milk, meat and wool.
5. Green fodder is the cheap source of animal feed, which provide proteins, vitamins,
minerals, carbohydrates, fat etc.

Grasses varieties and production
a) High mountains
Grasses / Legumes Time of cultivation Seed rate (kg/ha)
Perennial ryegrass Sept-Oct. 10
Italian ryegrass " "
Tall fescue " 6-10
Timothy " 10
Red clover Oct.-April 4-8
White clover " 3-5
Kote (Lucerne) Autumn & Spring 12-30
b) Mid-hills
Maize March-April 40-50
Teosente " 30-40
Oats Oct.-Nov. 100-125
Napier July 111sets
Setaria " 20
Perennial ryegrass Sept.-Oct. 10-20
Joint vetch March 1-3
Common vetch October 30-35
Silver leaf desmodium March-April 1-3
Stylo July 3-5
c) Terai
Jowar March-July 40-50

Bajra March-Sept. 10-12
Maize March-April 40-50
Oats Oct.-Nov. 100-125
Napier July 111111 sets
Berseem October 25
Lucerne " 15-20
Paspalum June-July 4-6
Joint vetch March 1-3
Common vetch October 30-35
Siratro July 3-4
Stylo " 3-5
Greenleaf desmodium March 2-3
Teosente " 20-40
Setaria July 20
8.2 Importance & scope of fodder trees:
 Fodder tree provide green during dry and winter season.
 The left over by the animals can used as a fuel wood.
 It can also be used for timber purpose.
 It can also used as bedding material for animals.
 Fodder tree minimizes the soil erosion.
 It is used as a wind- breaker in cropland.
 It is used for live fencing.
 It is also planted for beautification.
 It can also provide fruits, pollen, tannin and gum, which are used for various purposes.
Important fodder trees found in different climatic region of country are given below.

Fodder trees propagated by seed:
Common name Botanical name
Ipil-Ipil Leucaena lecocephala
Koiralo Bauhinia variegate
Kutmero Litsea monopetala
Khaniu Ficus semicordata
Khari Celtis australis
Githi Boehmeria regulosa
Gogan Saurauria napaulensis
Chiuri Aesendra butyracea
Tanki Bauhina purpurea
Painu Prunus cerasoides
Badahar Artocarpus lakoocha
Bakaino Melia azedarach
Baanj Quercus leucotricophora
Berulo Ficus clavata
Bhimal(Fosro) Grewia optiva
Saaj Terminalia tomentosa
Fodder trees propagated by vegetative parts:
Kabro Ficus lacor
Mallbery Morus alba
Chuletro Brassaiopsis hainla
Jingat Lanea coromandelica
Timilo/Nimaro Ficus roxburghii
Dudhilo Ficus neriifolia
Pakhuri Ficus glaberrima

Bans Bambusa spp.
Bains Salix babylonica
Amriso Thysanolaena maxima
Fodder tree and their availability:
Name of the fodder tree lopping time
Ipil-ipil Round the year
Kabro Baishakh-Ashar
Koiralo Mangsir toChaitra
Kutmero Kartic to Falgun
Mulbery Asoj to Poush
Khari Falgun to Ashar
Khannau Kartic to Chaitra
Gogan Poush to Chaitra
Githi Mangsir to Falgun
Chiuri Kartic to Chaitra
Chuletro Kartic to Baishakh
Jingat Poush to Magh
Tanki Kartic to Falgun
Timilo Kartic to Chaitra
Dudhilo Poush /Magh and Jeth/Ashar
Pakhuri Ashoj
Painu Ashar to shrawan
Badahar Kartic to Chaitra
Berulo Mangsir to Poush
Baishakh to Jeth
Bans Chaitra to Baishakh

Bains Hills and mountain:
Baishakh to Kartik
Lower belt:
Kartik to poush
Bakaino Baishakh to Bhadra
Baanj Poush to Ashar
Bhimal Ashoj to Falgun
Saj Ashoj to Mangsir
Amrisho Mangsir to poush
Seed collection schedule of different fodder species:
Seed collection month Fodder species
Baishakh koiralo,Gogan,Tankiand painu
Jeth Koiralo,Kutmero,Tanki
Ashar Koiralo,Kutmero,Khanyu,Chiuri,
Badahar and Berulo
Shrawan Kutmiro,Khanyu,Chiuri,Badahar and Berulo
Ashoj Khanyu,Khari,Githi andGogan
Kartik Ipil-Ipil,Khanyu,Githi
Mangsir Ipil-Ipil,Khari,Githi,Gogan,
Bakino,Baanj and Bhimal
Poush Ipil-Ipil,Bakino,Baanj
Bhimal
Magh Ipil-Ipil,Bakino,Baanj,Bhimal
and saj
Falgun Tanki,Bakino,Baanj
Chaitra Koiralo,Gogan,Tanki,Painu,
Bakino and baanj

Unit: 9 Treatment of crop residue: 2022/8/9
Crop nutrition and mixing of rations, processing ingredients and urea
treatment of rice straw:
What are crop nutrient requirements?
Nutrient management is critical in order to increase or maintain crop yields on
a single parcel of agricultural land. To meet crop needs throughout a growing
season soil fertility must be consistently high. There are fourteen nutrients that
are supplied to crops from soil and fertilizer sources. Of these, 6 are generally
considered macronutrients, while the rest are micronutrients. Macronutrients
are used in relatively larger amounts by the plant, however micronutrient
deficiencies can be equally damaging to yield and profitability.
Nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K) are the three main
nutrients that are conventionally supplied by inorganic fertilizers. Nutrients
may also be supplied by other products and processes such as organic manures,
plants residues, and biological nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen: Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and is one
of the most abundant elements in the earth’s atmosphere and surface. Nitrogen
deficiency, however, is one of the most prevalent crop nutrient problems
around the world.
Phosphorous: Phosphorous is an essential macronutrient for plant
reproduction, which may significantly impact grain or fruit yield. P deficiency
is a common problem causing crop stunting or discoloration in the field. One
of the major contributing sources of P for crops comes from soil organic
matter.

Potassium: Soil potassium is an essential macronutrient for crops and can
generally be found in three forms in an agricultural system. The K immediately
usable by plants is found within the soil solution. Though this form is most
significant for plant uptake, it is only a small fraction of the total K in the soil.
Mineral K is the most stable form and is generally tightly held within the soil
itself.
Secondary Nutrients: Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S), are
considered secondary macronutrients, or secondary nutrients, because they are
required in amounts smaller than typically needed for N, P, or K. These
elements, however, are equally important for plant growth and
nutrition. Often, adequate amounts of these nutrients can be found in the soil
and supplied to crops from chemical weathering or atmospheric deposition.
Micronutrients: Micronutrients are essential nutrients for plant growth that
are used in relatively small amounts by crops. Boron (B), zinc (Zn), manganese
(Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), and chlorine (Cl)
will only make up a small proportion of a plant; however, a deficiency in any
of these elements has the potential to cause a decrease in crop quality or
yield. In contrast, excess availability may cause toxicity. The availability of
each of these micronutrients will depend on environmental and soil conditions.
Urea treatment of straw:
Basing on the fact that there are always a lot of rice straw left wastefully in
many farm’s house after rice harvest season. As rice straw can be a good source
of fiber for cattle. To increase palatability and nutrition of rice straw urea
treatment is one special technique to treat rice straw using urea.
Straw can provide some carbohydrate but is very deficient in other nutrients.
Also because of high lignin content, digestibility is poor. However, to
increasing the digestibility of poor quality feed. This is one of the most

successful procedure to improve digestibility of crude plant material is through
treatment with urea.
Straw: straw is an agricultural byproduct consisting of dry stalks of cereals
plants after the grain and chaff has been removed. It makes up about half of the
yield of cereals crops such as rice, wheat, barley, oat etc.. straw contain
significant amount of potassium and some amount of nitrogen, phosphorous,
sulfur and magnesium, potassium level of straw range from 0.75% to 2.86% .
Uses of straw:
 Animal feeding
 Mulching
 Bio gas production
 Bedding materials
 Paper, rope industries
Procedure of urea treatment in rice straw:
1. Polythene sheet should be spread over on the selection site.
2. The one fourth chopping paddy straw spread over the polythene sheet
3. The water- urea solution (2.5-5%) sprinkle over the paddy straw and
mixed properly.
4. Then next one four paddy straw spread over and again sprinkles the urea
solution.
5. Airtight the treated straw and kept for 21 days
In that time ammonia released from the urea, weakness the lignified outer wall
and increase the digestibility of straw.
 Once treated and if properly covered to preserve anaerobic condition, the
urea ensiled material can be stored for several month.
Requirement:
 100 kg of paddy straw

 40% of water
 4 kg urea
 Polythene sheet
 bucket
Benefit:
 treated rice straw has enhance nutritive value than untreated paddy straw
 increase palatability
 treated rice straw is liked by cattle
 feed intake will increase
 maintain health quality
Step 1: Prepare the area Step 2: Spread the rice straw Step 3: Calculate amount of urea
Step 4: Mix urea with water Step 5: Sprinkle the urea solution onto rice straw Step 6: Wrap the “cake”

Precaution:
 calf of below 6 months should not feed
 pregnant cattle are not allowed to feed this urea treated straw
Crop residues:
Crop residues are important feed resources in the mixed crop/ livestock
production system in Nepal. The major crop residue are available in Nepal
are rice straw, corn Stover, wheat straw, straw from millet, lentil, mustard,
barley, soybean, sunflower, groundnut etc….
crop and animal by product in animals feed:
Crop by product Fats and oil (crops) Animal by products
Coconut oil meal 1. coconut oil 1. butter milk
powder, dried
Corn bran 2. soyabean oil Skim milk powder
Molasses 3. vegetable oil Fish oil
Wheat pollard Silk worm by products
Rice bran Buffalo liver
Bakery products Whey powder
Brewer’s dried yeast

Unit 10
Terminology related to forage/ fodder and pasture
Pasture is used for grass or other plants grown for feeding the grazing animals.
Pasture land is referring to the land devoted to the production indigenous
(native) or introduce forage species that are harvested primarily by grazing.
Crop land is devoted the production of cultivated crops that is harvested for
silage or hay.
Agrostology is a specialized discipline of agronomy for the study of forage
crops and their management and utilization.
Browse is defined as the leaves, shoots and sprouts of woody plants which are
eaten to various extent by the domestic and wild animals.
Crude fibers refer to that portion of feed insoluble in hot diluted H2SO4 and
sodium hydroxide solution.
Crude Protein: It gives appropriate value of protein contents of forage. It is
obtained by multiplying nitrogen parentage in the plants with the factor 6.25.
Fodder is defined as any plant that is cut before being fed to animals in the
green stage or after converting hay and silage.
Forage the term is used broadly to means all the plants material that are eaten
by the herbivores animals. Or It is the edible parts of the plants other than
grains that provide feed for animals or can be harvested for feeding.
Grasses is the term for the members of the plant family, that is “Poaceae” e.g
Wheat, Rice, Jao.

Grass land, the land on which vegetation is dominated by grasses which could
be annual or perennial. Or It is an open tract of land having plant community
of natural herbaceous species in which the dominant species are perennial
grasses which a non woody growth.
Grazing, when animals eats or partially defoliate any kind of standing
vegetation it is called as grazing.
Silage, forage preserved by field crops dried up to a moisture level, to prevent
microbial activity, that leads to silage. Or
Hay is an animal feed, produced by dehydrated green fodder to a moisture
content of about less than 15% so that the biological processes do not proceed
rapidly.
Legumes: It is a general term for a member of a plant family Fabaceae which
perform nitrogen fixing by nodules on the roots.
Meadow: An area covered with grasses or succulent fodder legumes grown
primarily for hay and silage, rather than for grazing.
Over seeding: is refers to seeding of grasses and legumes in an existing
grassland to improve and maintain the reproductive quality of forage.
Pasture: A community of grasses or grass vegetation maintained for grazing
purposes.
Roughages: is a bulky field stuff for livestock that is relatively high in fiber
and low in digestible nutrient. They may be green or dry and usually contain
more than 80% fiber.
Straw: Dry stocks of cereals after threshing and removing the seeds.
Silage: is an animal feed uptake by racking fresh fodder in a suitable container
and allowing it to ferment anaerobic conditions without undergoing much loss
of nutrients.
Soilage: is a general term to indicate a fodder cut green and feeding in fresh
conditions.

Grassland Agriculture: is a farming system that emphasizes the importance
of grasses legumes, livestock and land management. Farmers who plant crops
and managed livestock production around their grassland resources are
grassland farmers.
Important and scope of fodder/forage production and pasture
management:
Livestock production is a very important industry both on a national scale and
for farming families yet animal productivity is constrained by lack of fodder.
The estimated total fodder production in Nepal is 6.1 million tons TDN, only
64 percent of the fodder is required by livestock. There is excessive green
forage available during the monsoon period, but for the remaining 6 months,
over the winter and spring there is a lack of feed. In commercialized farming
situation farmers compensate for shortage of forage with supplementation of
expensive concentrate feeds. As concentrate are expensive, animals are not
feed to their requirement thus introducing cost without significantly increasing
production. This has a serious implication for competitiveness of the local
products against import products and for the sustainability of livestock
production system.
Forage mission has been implemented in Nepal from last 4 years and it will go
for next 2 year. It cover 4o district of terai and mid hills. The practices of hay
and silage making can be enhances. So that the forage of high quality can be
achieved in lean period or dry period of the year.
Importance of fodder production in livestock feed supply are :
1. Tree leaves generally rich in calcium
2. The ration of calcium is higher than that of phosphorus
3. Fodder tree have higher nutritive value
4. Fodder tree are higher important in livestock feed supply to increase
production and productivity
5. To keep in healthy condition

6. In green fodder, on the basis of dry matter 250 mg/kg dry matter is
available
7. To maintain digestibility, palatability, reducing constipation
Pasture management:
Grass/ pasture management is defined as the practice of growing healthy grass
and related plants to profitably sustain forage availability and livestock
production while ensuring ecological health. Grass/ pasture management
practice provide strategies for conserving and enhancing native grass,
improving forage production, restoring soil quality and quantity, improving
plant communities and reducing overall cost.
A well-managed grass pasture is one of the most cost effective and high value
feeds that can be produced and utilized. Pasture management can also be
providing significant benefit including improved forage yields, lower feed cost
and improve livestock performance.
Pasture rotation: in order to sustain a healthy field and grass crop, livestock
need to be rotated through a system of pasture rather than beings allowed to
graze continuously on one large pasture. The pasture rotation system will
include a system of cross fence to define areas of smaller pastures that livestock
can be moved through. This system will be result in more forage, less
overgrazing and reduce soil compaction. Divide pasture with permanent or
temporary cross fencing to provide 4-7 smaller pastures. This allows you to
control how long animals can graze a certain area. Being grassing pastures in
the spring after the grass has reached a height of 6-7 inch. Generally 10 to 25
days rotation are required though the spring, lengthening to 25 to 30 days in
the late summer.
Avoid overgrazing in rotational pasture: organizing results when there are
too many animals on too few acres or when animals are allowed to be on
pasture all winter, which lead to loss of productivity and degradation of soil.
Overgrazing kills beneficial plants by grazing them to death. The resulting bare

spots encourage weed growth, erosion, and runoff of nutrients into nearby
streams, and ditches,. Overgrazing also cause soils to become compacted,
reducing growing capacity and limiting the amount of water that can filter in
to the soil.
Legumes and non-legumes:
Characteristics Legumes Non-legumes
Crude protein 20-25 % 8-12%
Nutrient Protein Energy (carbohydrate)
Quantity of feed 1-2% of body weight About 10% body weight
Poisoning Excess feeding can
create bloat
HCN in sorghum at early
stage
Crops Cow pea, barseem,
lucern, stylo
Maize, sorghum, napier,
oat
Minerals Accumulate micro and
macro minerals
Accumulate less micro
and macro minerals
Digestible nutrients Palatable and higher
nutrients
Less palatable and less
nutrients
Leaves Wide and short in size Narrow and long
Roots Nitrogen fixing No nitrogen
Different between pasture and grass land:
Pasture: pasture is land used for grazing. Pasture land in the narrow sense are
enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses,
cattle, sheep, or swine. The vegetation of tended pasture, forage consist mainly
of grasses with an interspersion of legumes and other herbs. Pasture is typically

grazed throughout the summer, in contrast to meadow which is ungrazed or
used for grazing only after being mown to make hay for animals fodder.
Grassland also called rangeland, shrubland, woodlands and deserts that are
grazed b domestic livestock or wild animals. Type of rangeland include tall
grass and shortgrass prairies, desert grassland and shrubland. Rangeland do not
include forest lacking grazable understory vegetation, barren Rangeland
desert, farmland or land covered by solid rock, concrete and glaciers. Range
land are distinguished from pasture land because they are grow primarily
native vegetation, rather than plants established by humans.
Classification of forage crops:
Forage crops are classified on different ways:
1. On the basis of season of cultivation
2. On the basis of nutrients density in the dry matter
3. On the basis of plant tree
4. On the basis of crop duration
5. On the basis of plant family and duration of the crop
On the basis of season of cultivation:
Kharif (June-September) Rabi (October-Dec- Jan)
Eg. Cowpea, ban, field bean, bajra,
sorghum, maize
Eg, berseem, lucerne, oat, barley
On the basis of duration of the crop
Cereal -
annual
Grass legumes Tree
Annual Perennial Annual Perennial

Maize,
sorghum
Deenanath
grass
Hybrid
napier,
guinea
grass
Cowpea,
berseem
Lucerne,
stylo
Soobabul,
sesbania
On the basis of plant family and duration of the crop
Legumes Non- legumes
Eg, berseem, cowpea, stylo etc..
Annual: berseem, cowpea
Perennial: stylo, desmanthes
Eg, hybrid napier, guinea grass,
sorghum etc…
Annual: fodder maize, sorghum
Perennial: hybrid napier grass, para
grass
On the basis of life span:
Common name Scientific name
A. Annual (summer) Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
Sudan grass Sorghum sundanense
Maize Zea mays
Kimbu/ bajra Pennisetum glacum
Teosinte Euchlaena Mexicana
Little millet Panicum miliare
B. Annual (Winter) Oats Avena sativa
Barley Hordeum vulgare
Rye Sicale cereal
C. Perennial Hybrid napier (elephant
grass)
Pennisetum purpureum
Guinea grass (guinea
pull)
Panicm maximum
Para grass (neerpull) Brachiaria mutica
Seteria Seteria anceps
Sabi grass Urochloamo
sambicensis

Marvel grass Dichanthium
purpureum
Bluepanic grass Panicum antidotale
Factor affecting chemical composition and nutritive value of forage:
1. Soil composition: fodder grown on the soil deficient in micro and macro
elements will also be deficient in the some nutrients
2. Effect of manure and fertilizer: it has been found that application of
nitrogenous fertilizer increase the nitrogen content of the plant
3. Irrigation: with the increase supply of water to the plants the absorption
of minerals specially the Ca also increase
4. Frequency of cutting: the interval between two cutting has eventually the
same effect on the chemical composition as the progressive maturity
5. Stage of growth: different stage of growth of plant have different status
of nutrients eg, younger plants have higher CP content.
Unit: 11
Common annual legumes (cow pea, berseem, lablab, common vetch)
Winter annual fodder: legumes
Berseem (Trifolium alexandrium)
Berseem is indigenous fodder crop to Egypt. This is a nutritious, leguminous
fodder also know as king of fodder considering its palatability and nutritious
properties. This is very popular in terai to high hills of Nepal. This is fast
growing high quality forage that is mainly cut and feed as green chopped
forage. It is mixed with grass (rye grass) or with a winter cereal crop such as
oats to make high quality silage.
Climate and altitude: the crop can be sown in 15-27 degree C, showing
temperature is 25-27 degree C, harvesting time temperature is 15-20 degree C

and the breseem can be cultivated from terai 59 m asl to high hill 1500 m asl
in Nepal.
Soil: berseem can grow on all soil except very sandy soils, but thrives vastly
on well drained soils rich in lime and phosphorous.
Land preparation: the land is plowed well 2-3 time plowing to get a fine
suitable soil, after plowing make a suitable plots and small size beds are
formed.
Varieties of berseem: Green gold, Mescavi, 24 India (IGFRI), JHTB-98-4
etc..
Seed rate: 20-25 kg/hectare for Nepal condition
Sowing season: September- October
Fertilization and inoculation: berseem reponse well to fertilizers. The
application rate of fertilizer is nitrogen: 20-25 kg, phosphorous: 50-60kg,
potash 25 kg/ hectore.
Inoculation : if berseem is shown for the first time to inoculate the seed is very
important.
Add seed in water of 5% salt solution and it will help to remove the adulteration
in seed. Remove the inert material as appeared on the surface of water. Make
an inoculum solution adding 100 gm sugarcane or sugar per liter of water and
boil the water, let it be cool, once it is cool, add the seed mix well. The
preparation need to keep under the shed for 2-3 hour. By doing this, inoculums
will attach around the seed. Now the seed are ready for sowing the inoculated
seed should be sown within 24 hours.
Mixed farming: if applicable : berseem can be cultivated mixed with oat and
rapeseed.
Irrigation: berseem is winter crop and there is chance of little rain. Therefore
frequent irrigation is important. Once the plant get 8-10 cm height, first
irrigation is required in dry field condition. Then after irrigation should be
provided after 20 days intervals.

Harvesting time and production: the first harvesting time depends on the
methods of owing as following:
Sowing after rice harvest: from 50-60 days
Sowing after cultivated field: 40-50 days
Fodder yield: 70-80 MT/HECTORE
Seed production: the annual average seed production is 360 kg/ h
Nutrient requirement: DM 20%, CP 20.6% NDF 59%
Toxic substance and limitation: bloat disease if feed in excess amount

Vetch (Vicia sativa)
Vetch is annual winter fodder grown in terai and hills of Nepal. The fodder is
soft, palatable and nutritious to the livestock. The fodder is very good to maize
with other cereal fodder for better quality food to livestock. The plants looks
like ‘kutuli kosha’ available in terai and hills on Nepal.
Climate and altitude: the vetch fodder crop can be grown in tropical to sub
tropica climate condition. The fodder can be grown from 67 to 11500 m asl
from terai to the high hill.
Soil: silty loam (domat mato) to loam soil is suitable to cultivate the vetch. But
if moisture is there even silty can also be good to grow the vetch. Acidic soil
is not good to grow the vetch.
Varieties: Nomahi, Rasinna, Papani, Moraba are some verities
Seed rate: 35-40 kg/ hectare
Sowing season: October to November is suitable time for seed sowing
Fertilization and inoculation: the fertilizer required is NPK 30:60:40 kg per
hectare.
Inoculation: the seed is good for better production. The process if inoculation
is same as Berseem
Method of seed sowing of vetch: November first week to December first
week is the suitable sowing time for vetch
Mixed farming, if applicable: the crop can also be sown and inter cropping
in the rice field
Irrigation: considering the moisture in soil, 2-3 times irrigation is required
Harvesting time and production time: the first cutting is done after 60 days
of sowing and 2 more cutting depending on the growth of the plant.
Fodder yield of vetch: the fresh green matter yield of vetch is 60-70 metric
ton/ hectare
Seed production: 35-40 kg/ hectare

Toxic substance: fodder is safe and crop may be infested by helianthus insect
Cow pea (Vigna unguiculata)
Cowpea is widely grown in Nepal and India for green pods, dry seeds, green
manure and fodder. It is drought hardy crop also quick growing thus
suppressed weeds during initial stages. It also help to conserve soil and
moisture. Cow pea Is good source of protein, calcium and iron. It is cultivated
in irrigated area in Terai and hill of Nepal.
Climate and altitude: a suitable temperature is 22-25 degree C, showing
temperature 22-28 degree C and harvesting temperature 30-35 degree C. the
crop can be cultivated from terai to hills (67-1500 masl) of Nepal.

Soil: it can be grown in variety of soils but it gives best result when grown on
well drained loamy soils
Varieties of cowpea: cowpea 88, CL 367, Kashi kanchan, Kashi Unnati etc..
Seed rate of cowpea: 20-25 kg/ hectare
Sowing season of cowpea: winter: October- November, Summer: March-
April
Fertilization and inoculation: manuring: NPK: 7:5:22 PER HECTARE
Seed treatment: before sowing treat seeds with emisan 6 @2.5 gm/kg of seed
or Carbendazim 50% @2gm per kg seed. It will protect seeds from seed rot
and seedling mortality
Mixing farming of cowpea: if applicable
Irrigation: for good growth, on an average 4-5 irrigation are required, when
crop is shown in May month, apply irrigation at interval of 15 days till
monsoons arrival.
Harvesting time: 55-65 days after, crop is ready for harvesting
Fodder yield of cowpea: 8-10 MT/ HETARE
Toxic substance: no toxic

Lablab bean (Lablab purpureus)
Lablab bean is a summer growing annual or occasionally short lived perennial
forage. This fodder is called simi in Nepali.
Climate and altitude: tropical to sub tropical. Altitude is 59-1500m asl
Soil for lablab: all type of soil but silty loam is the best soil to grow the crop
Varieties: Gaud 1, Bundel sem 1/Alp -4
Seed rate of lablab bean: 20-25 kg/ hectare
Sowing season: irrigated land: September – October or March –April or
unirrigated land: June –July
Fertilization and inoculation: manuring: FYM: 5 mt / hetare . chemical
fertilizer: NPK: 25:40:30 KG/HECTORE
Mixed farming, if applicable: can be cultivate with seteria
Irrigation for lablab: depending on the soil moisture, irrigation in each 15
days interval is advisable
Harvesting time and production: crop is ready to harvest in 60 to 90 days
after sowing.
Fodder yield of lablab: 30-40 MT in 3 cutting in a year
Seed production of lablab bean: production: 12-15 MT/ HECTARE
Toxic substance: no
Nutrient requirement: DM 22%, CP 18%, NDF 44%

Common perennial fodder/ forage: (Napier, para, guinea grass, seteria,
paspalum, blue penic, molasses)
Napier grass/ Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
Napier is perennial cereal fodder crop. The grass grow tall and forms large
clumps like bamboo this crop is also known as Elephant grass. This fodder was
identified by scientist named Napier in Rhodesia 1909. This fodder is very
popular in Nepal farming system. Commercial dairy farm is supported by
Napier and getting popular in the recent year. After plantation it give yield
continuously up to 3-5 years. Fodder is harvested 10-14 cm above the ground.
Climate and altitude for Napier cultivation: Napier can be cultivated in
tropical climate zone of Nepal. The suitable temperature in 30 degree C,
showing temperature 30-32 degree and harvesting temperature is 20-25 degree
C. the crop can be best cultivated from Terai 59 masl to high hill 1500 masl.
Soil for Napier cultivation: it can cultivate on various soil but gives best result
when grown on heavy soils having high nutrients fertility. Avoid water logged
soils for cultivation of Napier bajra hybrid.
Land preparation: plough land once by mould board lough and then do
harrowing for two times to bring soil to fine tilth. After ploughing do planking
to make soil levelled. Make ridges and furrows at distance of 60 cm.
Varieties of Napier: pusa giant Napier, Gajraj, NB-5, NB-6, NB-21 and NB-
35, IGFRI 5, IGFRI 10….. the recommended variety by NARC (Nepal
agriculture research council) in Nepal is Hatti Ghans-1.
Seed rate of Napier grass: for planting 10,000 slips/sets or stem cutting per
hectare is required
Swing season of Napier grass: irrigated land: from last week of February to
May and in rain fed area: June- July
Fertilization and inoculation: chemical fertilizer at the rate of NPK 50:50:40
KG/h

Method of Napier seed sowing: stem cutting are sown at depth of 7-8 cm in
furrow. Seed of napier are very small so for commercial planting. It is
propagated vegetative with the help of stem cutting (having two to three nodes)
or root slips (approximately 30 cm long). Under irrigated condition optimum
time for planting is from last week of February to May. For rain fed area
sowing CA be done from June to August
Sowing depth: stem cutting are sown at depth of 7-8 cm in furrow. The sets
are planted making 45 degree angle.
Mixed farming, if applicable: some leguminous fodder crops such as kudzu,
bodi, lobia, centro can be used as inter cropping.
Irrigation of Napier: apply irrigation during summer month or hot and dry
month depending upon soil type and climate condition.
Harvesting time and production of Napier: harvesting should be done after
50 days of sowing. After first cutting when crop height becomes one meter,
take second cutting. Do not allow to grow crop for more then 2 meter as it will
in decreasing nutritional value of fodder. Fodder Is harvested 10-15 cm above
the ground.
Fodder yield: 120-150 MT/hector
Seed production: the fodder yield 10000to 11000 sets
Nutrient content of Napier: DM 18%, CP 8.5%
TOXIC SUBSTANCE: Nitrate poisoning, Oxalate poisoning

Molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora)
Molasses grass is a cereal perennial forage grass cultivated from terai to mid
hills of Nepal. This fodder remain green during the winter. The fodder is good
for soil conservation. The plant have smells of molasses and the name comes
after the name of molasses.
Climate and altitude: the crop does well in tropical to sub temperature
climatic zone of the country. The fodder crop molasses can be cultivated from
terai to mid hills 59-1500masl of the country.
Soil for molasses: crop can be cultivated in dry, I,e less fertile soil, soil should
be well drained out.
Varieties of molasses: no
Seed rate: about 5 kg seed is enough for one hector of land. Cutting: total
100000 cutting are required for one hector
Sowing season of molasses: June-July
Fertilization and inoculation: not applicable
Manuring: chemical fertilizer: NPK 60:100:40
Method of seed sowing: normally seeds are used to grow the crops but cutting
can also be used for cultivation. Land is plough to 3 inch and soil to be friable
Irrigation: 2-3 irrigation depending on the moisture content
Harvesting time: first cut after 75-90 days of sowing
Fodder yield: the yield as green fodder of 25-35 MT/hector
Seed production of molasses fodder: 100-250 kg seed / hector
Toxic substances and limitation: crystals of calcium oxalate have been found
in leaves of molasses but have not caused problems.

Para grass (Brachiaria mutica)
Para grass is a perennial. It can be used to prepare the hay for winter feeding.
This fodder crop is originated from Africa.
Climate and altitude: the crops grow well in temperature 15-30 degree C. it
prefer a warm, humid, and moist situation. Terai 56 masl , valley 500 masl and
mid hill 1500 masl
Soil for para grass: the fodder can be grown in any type of soil but sandy-
loam soil type is suitable to grow the crop
Varieties of para grass: comum, fino, lolori, parana, aguda
Seed rate of para grass: seed setting is poor in para grass. The seed rate is 10-
15 kg/ hectare
Sowing season: irrigated field: May-June and In dry field: June –July
Fertilization and inoculation: NPK 80:40:30
Methods of seed sowing: seed : broad casting, slips: plantation
Mixed farming of para grass: if applicable

Irrigation of para grass: frequent irrigation is required to this water loving
fodder. 3-4 times depending on the soil moisture is required
Harvesting time and production of para grass: the crop is ready in 2-3
month of plantation
Fodder yield of para grass: 30-60 MT/hector
Seed production rate: 20 kg/hector
Toxic substance: no toxic substance
Nutrient requirement: DM 27%, CP 8%
Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus)/ panicum maximum Jaca
The botanical name of Guinea grass is Megathyrsus maxmus although
previously it was known as Panicum maximum jaca. Guinea is fast growing
perennial grass. Guinea grass is suitable for pasture, cut and carry, silage and
hay. It is used as fodder for animals and is used to make hay.

Climate and altitude: the guinea can be cultivated in tropical, sub tropical and
temperature climate condition. Guinea grass is native to Africa and is now
widely cultivated in the tropics.
The temperature required for different stages 19-22 degree C. it is naturally
found in open grasslands, woodland and shady places. In terai 59 masl to
mountain 2000 masl region
Soil: it prefer well drained, moist and fertile soil. It is tolerant to low soil Ph if
drainage is good. It is growing in variety of soils ranging from moist, damp
and fertile soil. Avoid cultivation in heavy clayey on water logged soils.
Varieties of guinea grass: PGG 101,PGG 518, PGG 19, hamil etc..
Seed rate of Guinea grass: 4-5 kg/ hector
Sowing season of guinea grass: mid March to mid May
Fertilization and inoculation of guinea grass: the FYM OF 20-25 mt/ H is
applied before the land preparation. The chemical fertilizer is applied: NPK:
60:50:40 KG/H
Inoculation and seed treatment: inoculation not applicable. Seed treatment
with Sulphuric acid for 10 min.
Method of seed sowing: nursery bed and plantation, mixed farming: yes
Irrigation: depending on moisture in soil. During monsoon season no need of
irrigation and in the dry month irrigation at 21 day interval is required
Harvesting time and production of guinea grass: guinea grass is well suited
of cut and carry system and can be used for making hay and silage. Harvesting
Is mainly done after 55 days of sowing. Around 5-7 cutting are done at different
intervals. First cut is mainly given in about 55 day and then subsequent cutting
are done after the interval of 25- 30 days.
Seed production: the seed production of this fodder is 0.100 to 0.200 metric
ton per hectare. Guinea grass produces 10.7-3 million seed per kg
Toxic substance: fodder contain oxalate and feeding to much harmful to the
livestock

Blue penic (Panicum antidotale Retz) grass:
Blue penic grass is a perennial virgious, tufted perennial grass. It is deeply
rooted and develops from short, thick and somewhat bulbous rhizomes. Its
stems are erect, hard almost woody, swollen at the base, looking like sugarcane
stems Panicum antidotale Is mainly used for fodder and grain production.
Climate and altitude: tropical to sub tropical climate zone. Terai 59 m asl and
hills 1500 m asl
Soil for blue penic grass: sandy soil with well drained
Varieties of blue penic: cultivar-130 developed in America
Seed rate of blue penic grass: 5-6 kg/ H
Sowing season: June –July
Fertilization and inoculation: Manuring: FYM . CHEMICAL
FERTILIZATION: NPK :60:40:30/ H
Inoculation : not applicable
Mixed farming: blue penic can be growing with various other forage such
cenchrus biflorus and Dicanthithium annulatum in agro forestry system.

Irrigation: in very condition, irrigation is required. 10-15 day interval
Harvesting time and seed production: May-Dec and fodder yield is 30-50
MT green fodder
Seed production: 160—600 kg/H
Toxic substance: at the late flowering stage, blue penic acquires a bitter and
accumulate large amount of oxalic acid that may can cause kidney disorder
Setaria grass (Setaria anceps)/ Sumba seteria (Seteria spp)
This fodder is both annual (just for one year and then field is open) and
perinneal (more than one year) pasture forages cereal grass crop. The crop was
originate in Africa. This fodder crop can be cultivated in raiser and bunds,
landslide area and pasture lands.

Climate and altitude: best for terai and hills. Suitable temperature is 18-22
degree C. lower hills (660 m asl) to mountain 2660 masl for good seed
production.
Soil: any type of soil but good in sandy loam soil
Land prepreration: 2-3 times plowing and make soil friable
Varieties: Nandi, Solander, Naroc, Buwa river, Giant seteria
Seed rate: 8-10 kg/ hector
Sowing season: in irrigated area: any time of the year and in non irrigated area:
June to July and October
Fertilization: FYM: 5 TONS AND chemical fertilizer: NPK : 100;50:0
KG/HECTOR
Mixed farming: if applicable
Irrigation: seteria is moisture loving fodder crop but field should not have
water accumulation. Depending on the soil moisture, irrigation in 10- 15 days
interval.
Harvesting time and production of seteria: usually 2-3 month after seed
sowing and therefore 4-5 cutting can be obtained
Fodder yield : 78-150 MT green fodder/ hectare
Seed production: 100-120 KG/HECTOR
Toxic substances in sateria: high oxalate content and therefore not to feed t
horse and donkey. It cause excessive urination, kidney and bone problems.

Paspalum (Paspalum dilatatum)
Paspalum is a perennial with leafy at the base summer cereal grass in pasture
ad lawn. Its rapid growth and profuse seed production enable it to quickly
invade agricultural land, especially rice fields. Paspalum grass is also known
as water grass because it need more water to get good yield, dallis grass, golden
crown grass and catepillae grass.
Climate and altitude: sub tropical to temperate climate condition is required.
20-27 degree C. mid to high hill (500-2000 m asl) in Nepal.
Soil: clay silty soil is good. The fodder can do well in some water lodging
condition.
Land preparation: same as the cerial fodder , seed bed or nursery bed
preparation,
Varieties of paspalum: Atro paspalum, dylats etc..
Seed rate of paspalum: 8-10 kg/ha
Sowing season of paspalum: May last- July
Fertilization and inoculation: FYM needs to be applied. Chemical fertilizer
N:P:K: 80:60:40 PER HECTARE
Irrigation: depends on soil moisture
Harvesting time and production of paspalum: first cutting after 3-4 month
of seed sowing or transplanting the seedlings, in august. Crop can be harvested
4-5 years
Fodder yield of paspalum: 30-50 ton green matter/ha/year
Seed production: 150-300 KG/HECTOR, seed are ready to harvest after one
month of flowering.
Toxic substance and limitation of paspalum: the grass itself is not known to
be toxic but seed head parasitized by the ergot fungus whether in pasture or in
hay can be toxic due to production of tremorganic pyridine alkalodiosis in the
sclerotia.

Unit 11
Common perennial legumes ( Stylo, Lucern or Alfalfa, Kudju, Centrocae)
Stylo ( Stylosanthes hamate)
Stylo is a perennial leguminous fodder and useful to protect the land erosion.
It grows 0.6 to 1 m tall. It is easy to grow and helps to improve the land.
Climate and altitude: the crop can be grown from tropical to temperate
climate condition in Nepal. The altitude of this crop from terai 67 to 2000 masl
in hill region.
Soil: it grows well on the most soils with PH of 5.4 t 8 but not on heavy clays.
Sandy loam soil is the best for stylo cultivation.
Varieties: varieties in abroad: Hamate, cook, catinga, V8, seca, Verano . in
Nepal varieties: Palpa stylo

Seed rate and seed treatment: line sowing: 4-6 kg/h and broad sowing: 8-10
kg/ h
Seed treatment: the seed can be treated using two methods such as hot water
treatment. Seed are treated with hot water of 85 degree C FOR 5 MINUTES
TREATMENT BEFORE SOWING IN ORDR TO DAMAGE THE HARD
SEED coat. And another is acid treatment: the concentrated sulphuric acid
treatment is practiced in seed treatment, seed are kept in acid for 5-10 min and
then after seeds are washed with running water by holding the seed in sieves,
dry the treated seed in shed. The seed treatment ensure of better germination.
Sowing season: rain fed condition: June to August and irrigated land: January-
May
Fertilization and inoculums: apply 10 tons of farm yard manure/ha before the
sowing. Fertilizer rate is NPK 20:60:15 per hectare.
Mixed farming, if applicable: deenanath grass, Rhodes grass and thin Napier
can be used as mixed farming.
Irrigation: it need irrigation time to time depending of the soil moisture.
Harvesting time and production of stylo: first cutting can be obtained 2-3
oth of sowing stylo and subsequent cutting can be achieved and 45 days first
cutting.
Fodder yields of stylo: yearly 25-30 MT/ HECTOR in 3 cutting
Seed production: 300-800 kg/ hector
Toxic substances and limitation of stylo: stylo contain condensed tannins.
However, pregnant animal is feeding restricted.

Lucerne/ Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
Lucerne is a perennial leguminous fodder crop. The Lucerne is also known as
alfalfa and known Lucerne. It was introduce in Europe. It is known as the queen
of fodders because of its unique and multiple characteristics. It provides fodder
throughout the year especially during the two periods of fodder scarcity in the
country, May –June and October-November
Climate and altitude: for better growth, the crop need more than 15 degree
C and altitude is in terai 59 masl and 1500 masl in high hill.
Soil: except sandy soil, the Lucerne can be grown in all types of soil. If
irrigation is available the Lucerne crop can be cultivated.
Varieties of Lucerne: type -8, type-9 and type 8*9, Ladak Lucerne
Seed rate: 10-12 kg/hector
Season sowing of Lucerne: September- October in Nepal (terai to mid hills),
June- JULY (high hills /lower hills)
Fertilization and inoculation: Lucerne is able to fix with atmospheric
nitrogen and therefore small quantities of chemical fertilization is required.
The recommended fertilization rate is NPK
Inoculation: seed cleaning: with the use of 5% salt water, unwanted materials
is removed, after cleaning with the seed, inoculums is used following as the
procedure used in berseem seed inoculation.
Mixing farming, if applicable: not applicable
Irrigation: irrigation is required depending upon the soil moisture. This crops
need a first irrigation three weeks after sowing. Irrigation can be applied at
interval of 15-20 days n winter and 10-15 days In summer.
Harvesting time and production of Lucerne: the fodder is normally ready
50-60 days after sowing. Second cut is obtained when the plant height is about
45-50 cm height. (about 30 day after 1st
cutting). Third cutting depend on the
management of crops

Fodder yield of Lucerne: 70-80 MT / hector green fodder yield
Seed production: 0.3-0.4 MT/ hector
Toxic substance and limitation of Lucerne: may cause bloat in ruminant
animals.
Centro (Centrocema pubescens)
Centro is a legume fodder and also known as butterfly pea. The crop is the
native of central and south America. This plant is considered to be the most
productive green manure crop of fertile soils in the humid tropics and is widely
grown for this purpose.
Climate and altitude: centro can be grown in tropical to sub tropical climate
zone and the altitude is 67 to 15oo masl in terai to high hill
Soil: clay soil, loamy soil
Land preparation: land need to be plough 3-4 times and make the soil smooth
Varieties of centro: Belatlo, CIAT 5162
Seed rate of centro: 3-5 kg per hectare
Sowing season of centro: june –july

Fertilization: chemical fertilization NP 25:60 per hectare
Method of seed sowing: seed are broad casting considered the seed rate
Harvesting: fodder is ready in 3 month after sowing and second cutting after
one and half month after first cutting. Annually 3-4 cutting can be done in some
promising varieties.
Fodder yield: 40-50 MT/h
Toxic substance: very less content of toxicity of centro fodder
Kudzu (Pereira phaseoloides)
The Kudzu is perennial leguminous fodder crops. It was introduce in India in
1972 from Amrica and it was first introduce In Nepal in 1995. Kudzu leaves,
flower, blossoms, vine tips and root are edible. Flower can be tossed on a salad,
cooked or pickle.
Climate and altitude: the suitable tropical to sub tropical climate zone of
Nepal. The suitable temperature is 17 degree C. in terai to mid hill (59-
1000masl)
Soil: kodzu prefer well drained loamy soils, sandy deep loam soil,
Varieties: pureria, iawanica, ureria

Seed rate: 15kg/he
Sowing season: June –July
Fertilization: chemical fertilizer: NPK
Inoculation: usually not done
Harvesting time: the plant should not cut more than twice per year
Fodder yield: 20-30 MT /H
Toxic substance: no

Cultivation practice of some important grass and fodder tree
Name Climate
(Altitude)
Seed rate
(kg)
Seed
production
of grass
Average
production
of grass
Sowing
time
Additional
information
Berseem Upto 1500m
from sea
level
20-25 /hac 400-750/hac 70-80
MT/hac
Aswin-
kartik
-Also known as
king of fodder.
-First harvesting
can be done after 45
day of sowing
Lucerne Terai to high
hills
20-25/hac 150-300/hac 50-60
MT/hac
Terai:
Aswin to
kartik
High hills:
jestha-ashad
-queen of grass/
alfalfa
-first
harvestingafter 50-
60 days of sowing
Red clover 1500-3000
m from sea
level
6-8/hac 600/hac 80-100
MT/hac
Baishak-
mangsir
First harvesting
after 90 -120 days
of sowing
White clover 1500- 4000
m from sea
level
4-5 / hac 20-30/hac 50-
60MT/hac
Jestha-ashad It requires
phosphorous
fertilizer @3kg/hac
Desmodium 600-2000m
from sea
level
2-3/hac 500-600/hac 40-
50MT/hac
Jestha-ashad Also known as
silver leaf or green
leaf grass
Joint vetch Upto 1200m
from sea
level
10-15/hac 600-
1500/hac
35-40
MT/hac
Jestha-asad It contain CP=22%,
mineral=11%,
calcium=1.3%,
phosphorous=0.2%
Stylo Terai and
mid hills
upto 1700m
from sea
level
4-5 kg/hac 100-
300kg/hac
50-
60MT/hac
Jetha-ashad Also known as
tropical lucern
-first harvet after 2-
3 month of sowing
Napir Terai to mid
hills upto
1750m from
sea level
10000 sets
/hac
120-
150MT/hac
Falgun-
chaitra and
jetha –ashad
Also called
elephant grass
-first harvest after 3
moth of set
treansfer
Fertilizer: @50%
nitrogen,
50%phosphorous

and 40 kg
potash/hac
-overfeeding may
lead to oxalic
toxicity
Vetch Terai to mid
hills upto
from sea
level
35-40 kg/
hac
600-700
kg/hac
40-50
MT/hac
Aswin-
kartik
First harvest after
60 days of sowing
Oat Terai to hills 100-120
kg/hac
1200-2000
kg/hac
30-50
MT/hac
Ashwin-
mangsr
First harvest after 2
month of sowing
Ipil-ipil Upto 1500m
from sea
level
50kg/hac Jestha-ashad Mimosin toxicity is
associated with
over feeding of this
fodder
Tanki 600-1600m
from sea
level
80-120
kg/plant
Ashad Cp-17%
Koiralo 1500-1900m
from sea
level
80-120
kg/plant
Jestha-ashad
Kimbu Upto 2000m
from sea
level
Ashad-
shrwan
Bakaino Upto 1800m
from sea
level
Ashad
Badahar Upto 1200m
from sea
level
200kg/plant Jestha-ashad
Cultivation of forage
Fodder/forage (Maize, teosinte, bajra, oat, sorghumn)
Characteristics of
fodder
Scientific name Fodder
sowing/planting
months
Harvesting
month
A. Annual
fodder crop

Berseem Trifolium
alexandrium
Sep-oct Dec -april
Vetch Vicia sativa Oct-nov Dec-may
Oat Avena sativa Oct-nov Dec-may
Joint vetch May-june Aug-feb
Cowpea May-june Aug-feb
Rice bran May-june Aug-feb
Glycine May-june Aug-feb
Lablab bean May-june Aug-feb
Sorghum May-june July-oct
Teosinte May-june July-oct
Sudan May-june July-oct
Bajra May-june July-oct
Maize fodder Round the year Round the year
Stylo May-june Aug-feb
Desmodium May-june July-aug
Lucern/alfalfa Sep-dec (terai)
April (hill)
Dec-june (terai)
Jul-oct (hill)
B. Perennial
fodder
grass
Napier May-august July—dec
Broom
grass
June-july July-dec
Paragrass June-july Aug-jan
Setaria May-july June-dec
Guinea
grass
May-july May-dec
Mulato June-july Aug-jan
Winter annual fodder: cereal crops
Oats (Avena sativa)
Oat is an important cereal fodder crops mostly used in livestock feeding in
Nepal and other countries. It is grown from the tropical to temperate

geographical region. The crop is available during winter when the country is
facing feed deficient in this season.
Climate and altitude:
oat can be cultivate in tropical to temperature climate condition. This crop has
wide adaptability from hot terai to high mountain of Nepal. The best suitable
temperature is 20 -30 degree C.
soil: it can be cultivated on all kind of soil. Well drained loamy soil rich in
organic matter is suitable for cultivation. Ph range 5-6
varieties of oats: Indian varieties of oat: Weston-11, kent, OL-10, OL-9, OL-
11, Algerian, brunker-10
Nepalese varieties of oat: netra, kamadhenu, ganesh, Nandini, amritdhara
Seed rate: 100 to 120 kg per seed per hectare
Sowing season: in terai and mid hill: October to November in mountain:
October/ November to April/May
Fertilization: apply 30 kg of nitrogen in form of urea 66 kg and 8 kg of
phosphorous per hectare. Apply half dose of nitrogen and full dose of
phosphorous at the time of showing. Apply remaining amount of nitrogen, 30-
40 days after sowing.
Seed treatment: seed should be treated with captain or thiram @3 gm/kg of
seed to protect seed from the various fungal and pathogenic disease
Method of seed showing: spacing: 25-30 cm should be kept between rows.
Depth should be 3-4 cm
Mixed farming: can be mixed with vetch, pea, berseem
Harvesting time: first harvest should be two month after showing. If good
irrigation facility is available.
Fodder yield: 30-45 MT/ hectare

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor):
Sorghum is an annual summer cereal fodder crop mostly grown in the terai and
high hills of Nepal. Sorghum Is an important fodder crop for commercials dairy
farming.
Climate and attitude: the crop can be cultivated in tropical to temperature
climate condition of Nepal. A suitable temperature is 25-32 degree C. altitude
is 59 masl in terai and 1500masl in high hills
Soil for sorghum: it grow on wide range of soil but sandy loam soil with good
drainage is suitable for cultivation. Ph of 6 to 7.5
Land preparation for sorghum: need to remove all the weed from the field
and plow 2-3 times to make soil lose for cultivation. Give one deep ploughing
ever year in shallow to medium deep soil.
Varieties; SL44, Punjab sudax, SSG 59-3, Pusa chari, HC136
Seed rate: 30-35 kg/arce for showing

Showing season: May-July is suitable time for showing
Fertilization: basal dose: before showing add 4-6 tons of farm yard manure or
well decomposed cow dung in soil. Top dressing: @30 kg nitrogen 25th
or 30th
days after showing the seed
Inoculation: seed treatment. To protect crop soil borne disease, do seed
treatment with 300 mesh Sulphur powder @4 gm and then Azotobacter @25
gm/kg of seed before showing
Mixed farming, if applicable
Irrigation for sorghum: to get good yield, give proper irrigation at important
stages like tillering, flowering and grain formation stages. In kharif season it
requires one to three irrigation depending upon rainfall intensity.
Harvesting time of sorghum: the right time for harvesting is when grains
become hard and contain less than 25 % moisture. Once crop get mature
harvest it immediately. For harvesting sickles are used. The plant are cut from
near the ground level.
Fodder yield : 70- 80 MT /Hac
Teosinte (Euchaena Mexicana)

The teosinte is commonly known as Makai chari. This fodder is also known
as Makai ghas in Nepal. This is very popular among the commercial dairy farm
in terai region of Nepal.
Climate and altitude: the suitable temperature for teosinte is 21 -32 degree C.
showing temperature is 28 -32 degree C and harvesting temperature is 19-26
degree C. the fodder is best to grow from terai 67 masl to high hills 2000 Meter
above the seal level (masl)
Soil to grow teosinte: the teosinte fodder crop can be well grown in variety of
soil ranging from loam to sandy loam soil. It gives best result when grown in
rich of heavy soil. For good growth it requires PH ranging from 5-7.
Varieties of teosinte: it developed in 1993. The plant of this variety is maize
borer resistant. Leaves remain green till maturity. Seeds have hard covering
and are slightly brown in color. Sirsa and rhuri are varieties of teosinte.
Seed rate of teosinte: 25-43 kg per hector
Sowing season time: March to June
Fertilization of teosinte and inoculation: the recommended dose of
fertilization is NPK (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium). During land
preparation half dose of N and full dose of K is applied and remaining half
dose of N is divided into two parts
Time of seed sowing: prepare nursery in the month May –June and seed are
shown in the June –July.
Mixed farming of teosinte: is applicable
Irrigation: depending upon the climate and soil, the irrigation Is done at the
interval of 10-20 days
Harvesting time: after showing 40-50 days first cut can be obtained. At this
stage, plant can have 60 cm height. The crop can be harvested at the end of
November.
Seed production of teosinte: 40-70 MT/hector

Toxic substance of teosinte: HCN (Prussic acid), nitrate in immature fodder
which is toxic the livestock
Bajra/ pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides)/ bajra Napier Hybrid
Bajra is annual cereal fodder crop. Bajra or pearl millet is grown for grain as
well as for fodder purpose where as napier or elephant grass is mainly
cultivated as forage crop. Napier bajra is hybridization between bajra and
elephant grass.
Climate and attitude: the optimum temperatue for bajra is 30 degree C. the
crop In Nepal is grown from Terai 67 masl to hill 1500 masl
Soil: it can be cultivated on various soil but best result when grown on heavy
soils having high nutrient fertility. Avoid water logged soils for cultivation of
Napier bajra hybrid
Land of preparation for bajra: the seed of bajra are very small and need at
least 2-3 plowing to mke uniform seed on the prepared filed.
Varieties of bajra: PNB 233, PNB 83, PBN 346, PUSSA GIANT NAPIER,
GAJRAJ, NB-35 ETC…

Seed rate: 10-15 kg seed per hector
Sowing season: irrigated land: March-June and unirritated land: June –July
Fertilization and inoculation: NPK 60::30:25 KG/ Hector
Inoculation : no
Method of seed showing: under irrigated condition, optimum time for planting
is first last week of February to May. For rain fed areas, sowing can be done
from June to August.
Mixed farming: not applicable
Irrigation: apply irrigation during summer month or hot and dry depending
upon soil type and climate condition
Harvesting time: harvesting time of bajra should be done after 50 days of
showing. After first cutting when the crop height becomes one meter, take 2nd
cutting.
Fodder yield of bajra: 50-60 green MT / hector in 2-3 cutting
Seed production: 1-2 MT/Hector
Toxic substance: tannin content is higher in the young plants

Maize fodder (Zea maize)
Maize is a popular green forage to support ruminant livestock. It contain the
stalks, leaves which is used in livestock. Maize as a fodder can be cultivated
year round in the tropical and sub tropical regions. Maize is considered as a
best fodder for silage making. In areas where condition are harsh and forage is
scarce, maize green forage is a valuable source of fodder for small holder
owned stock. Maize is a higher energy feed, better than most tropical forage
crops. Maize Stover is also popular in developing countries like Nepal. The
Stover includes, stalks, leaves, husk, and cobs.
Climate and altitude: maize can thrives best in warm climates. Altitude: terai
(56 masl) to high hills 2500 masl in Nepal
Soil: deep well- drained, rich soil is needed to get good fodder yield from
maize. It can be grown in all types of soil, but the best performance is best in
sandy loams with good drainage. Suitable ph. is 4.3-8.7
Climate: a suitable average day temperature is 18-21 degree C
Varieties: composite/ hybrids : African tall, ganga hybrid, ultra early
Seed rate for fodder production: 35-40 kg/hector
Seed rate for seed production: 12-15 kg/ha
Sowing season: throughout the year for fodder in all districts under irrigated
conditions. However, normally the maize is shown for fodder in two season,
winter: September- October and summer: April- May
Fertilization and inoculation: chemical fertilization: full dose: NPK
100:50:50
Inoculation: not applicable
Mixed farming: if applicable
Maize seed: 35-40 kg/Hector
Irrigation: it need less water supply during seeding stage. Over moisture in
the seedling stage turn them pale yellow which never recover on prolonged

wetting. If rainfall distribution during growth period is good. There is no need
for irrigation.
Harvesting time and production of maize: first cut at 70-75 days after
showing. Fodder yield of fodder maize: 10-15 MT/hector
Seed removal: by hand and machine
Seed production: 2-3 ton/ hector
Toxic substance and limitation fodder maize: maize is safe to feed to the
animals if not contaminated , are fresh and clean.
Nutrient of fodder maize: 7.9 %CP, 23 % DM, 3.5% Ca
Insects and pest: corn earthworm, soil insects, false wireworm, suckling pest,
corn aphid, green vegetable bugs, army worms etc…
Disease in fodder maize: maize rust, maize leaf blight, brown spot, downey
mildew
Unit 12
Introduction to pasture, range, and natural grassland
Pasture: is defined as an area enclosed for growing forage and allowing
animals, such as cattle, sheep, and goats to graze. Pasture can support a wide
range of plants species offering varying degrees of nutrition for the green. They
are natural grown grasses in the open field.

Range land/ grassland: range land are grassland can be defined as those land
on which the native vegetation is predominantly grasses, grass like plants,
herbs or shrub suitable for grazing or browsing use. Range land include natural
grassland, savannas, many wetlands, some deserts, tundra, and certain herb and
shrub communities. Rangeland is less intensively managed than pastures.
Grass land can be divided into 2 categories:
Natural grassland: it include native vegetation like grass, herbs, shrub
Cultivate grassland: it include improved vegetation cultivated by human to
graze their animals. They may be permanent or perennial forage containing
grassland or may be temporary, annual or seasonal forage containing grassland.
Permanent pasture: rye grass, white clover
Temporary pasture: cow pea, vetch
The problem in pasture/ rangeland improvement in Nepal:
 Lack of pasture management technology
 Poor land allocation
 Over grazing/ continuous grazing
 Lack of community organization
 Lack of co-ordination/ help between governmental organization
 Terrace land empty
 Lack of fund and motivation
Grazing system in Nepal:
Grazing system in Nepal Is broadly classified as
1. Grazing system in Northern region
2. Grazing system in hilly region
3. Grazing system in terai region

Grazing system in Northern region: northern pasture include the northern
borer region in trans- Himalayan region and high elevation grazing land in the
high Himalayan region. This region is cold and plant growth is slow. The use
of rangeland is particular during summer and rainy season. Migratory system
is the main management system in this area.
Grazing system in Hilly region: traditionally, community pasture land are
grazed by the animals. But due to the shrinkage of land and increasing in the
use of productive dairy animals, stall feeding adapting cut and carry system is
getting popular. Local authorities are also discouraging pen grazing system in
the recent year.
Grazing system in Terai: grazing system in terai are gradually shrinking due
the human population and land fragmentation. For one two hours, if land is
available, animals are allowed to go out for small exercise. Due to high
stocking rate, pasture land are degraded and eroded.
High hills animals grazing system
In high hill animals grazing system animals are grazed free. There are mainly
two types of animals grazing system in hill and high hill region of Nepal. They
are:
1. Transhumance herding system:
 This system is present in high Himalayan region.
 Herd migrate from one place to another place throughout the year
 It utilize forge resources from alpine pasture (monsoon) and
rangelands
 Yak, sheep, goat, cattle, sometimes buffalo are grazed in this
system
2. Sedentary herding system:
 This system is present in mid hill to high hill region of Nepal
 Livestock travel daily in the morning and return in the evening

 During summer, the animal are taken to scrubland (community
grazing areas/ community forest)
 Working males, dry herd and cattle sometimes mainly goat and
sheep are razed in this system.
3. Deferred grazing:
 Means delayed grazing. Deferred grazing implies delayed grazing
until after the most important forage plant have set seed.
4. Continuous grazing: this is extensive system of grazing which the stock
remain on the same grazing areas for prolongs period. This system of
grazing is the normal practices In our county like rotational grazing and
strip grazing.
Cultivation practice of common species for perennial rye grass, white
clover)
White Clover (Trifolium repens)
White clover is a perennial legume fodder. Once established, it lasts for about
10-12 years. It is probable that white clover seed was brought from England in
Nepal and propagated during Rana regime. It is a winter fodder crop, which is
highly nutritious and relished by cattle. It can also be converted into hay or
turned into the soil as green manure. It forms an excellent pasture particularly
when grown mixed with grasses like ryegrass, cocksfoot or local grasses. In
mixed cultivation, 40 percent of white clover and 60 percent of other grasses
would be recommendable.

Climatic requirements: Alpine regions of Nepal with altitudes ranging
between 1200 and 4000 msl are suitable. Cool and dry conditions with
occasional light showers of rain during the colder months of December and
January are ideal for its growth.
Toxicities: Bloat is caused when the animals graze or eat fodder in highly
succulent state or when the plants are covered with raindrops or dew.
Soil conditions: Fertile loam to clay loam soils is the best. The soil should be
rich in phosphorus, calcium and potassium as well as trace elements like
molybdenum, zinc and copper.
Sowing: Time: After one or two showers in the month of March or April. If
the small branches of the plants are to be transplanted, the months of June or

July would be appropriate. Before sowing or transplanting, the land should be
properly ploughed to a depth of about 15 cm.
Seed rate: The seed rate of white clover is generally lower than that of berseem
due to smaller size of seeds. Generally 3-5 kg of seeds is sufficient per hectare
of land.
Manuring: Farmyard manure may be applied at the rate of 10 tones per hectare
before seed bed preparation. In addition, fertilizer mixture consisting of 20-25
kg urea, 250 kg super phosphate and 35 kg of potash may be drilled in the soil
at sowing
Irrigation: After sowing, first two irrigations may be given at an interval of
10 days. Subsequently, irrigation may be given every one-month in the winter
season, 20-25 days in the spring months of February and March, and 15 days
in April.
Harvesting: Although white clover is considered to be pasture forage, first
harvesting can be done after about 60 days of sowing. Thereafter cuttings can
be taken at monthly intervals.
Yields: Under scientific methods of cultivation, 3-4 tones of dry matter per
hectare can be obtained. If sown on rangelands, seed production is only about
20-30 kg per hectare.
Varieties: Ladino, Huia, Regal, Tilman, Arkadia.
Perennial Rye Grass (Lolium perenne)
This is a perennial grass Suitable to temperate regions. Unless covered with
snow, it remains green round the year. Since perennial rye grass tolerates heavy
grazing pressure, it is suitable to range lands. It has extensive tillering ability
and is bright green in colour. Under good management systems it grows to a
height of about one metre.

Climatic requirements: The grass is suitable in alpine region or it requires
temperate climate. In Nepal, for example, the altitudes ranging between 1200
and 4000 msl is ideal for the growth of rye grass.
Sowing: Seeds can be sown at various places such as pasture land, rangeland,
fruit gardens, croplands, wastelands, forest area with scarcely scattered trees.
Time: Sowing time is dependent upon the local climate. In the alpine belt,
suitable sowing time is after melting up of the snow in the month of March or
April. In the lower mountainous regions, on the other hand, seed can be sown
during September- October or May -June. Instead, seedlings can be
transplanted after one or two monsoon rain.
Seed rate: About 10 kg of seed is sufficient to one hectare of land. In case of
transplantation, 100,000 seedlings are required
Method of sowing: If the grass seed is to be sown in the form of single fodder
crop, 3-4 ploughings are necessary. The seed is sown by broadcasting. Line
sowing is also common. In such method of sowing or transplantation, the
distance between two rows should be about 30 centimeters.

Manuring: 10-20 tones of farmyard manure is recommended during seed-bed
preparation. At sowing, chemical fertilizers-nitrogen, phosphorus and potash
at the rate of 100:60 and 40 kilograms may be drilled into the soil.
Crop mixtures: Rye grass makes excellent combination with white clover.
Yields: Under scientific method of cultivation, animals can be left for grazing
after 3-4 months. Irrigation could be necessary during dry periods. Under
scientific method 10-12 tones of dry matter can be obtained. In general, 8-10
cuttings can be taken per year.
Seed production: In normal condition, 100-150 kilograms of seed can be
obtained per hectare. Under scientific method of cultivation, seed production
is about 400 kilograms.
In Nepal more than 26 varieties of rye grass seed were imported from different
countries for trial. However, only the following varieties have shown good
results.
Varieties: Bastion, Lamora, Prumo, Sammora, Limes etc..
Leucaena leucocephala
Family: Leguminosae
Common name: Ipil ipil
It is either a tall tree or many- branched shrub. Of all the tropical legumes,
Leucaena probably offers the widest assortment of uses.
Flowering is dense with white flowers and roots are deeply seated. There are
more than 800 known varieties, but universal common name is 'Leucaena'
although many countries may use local names.

Fig. Ipil
Variety of Leucaena:
1. Common type- bushy and propagated very fast, aggressive weed.
2. Giant type: Tall up to 20 meters.
3. Peru type: medium sized reaching a height of about 10 meters. They have
extensive branching even low on the trunk. Therefore, this is considered to be
promising variety for forage production so far.
Leucaena is found in most tropical countries and is a perennial summer
growing browse plant.
Climatic requirements: For optimum growth, a temperature range between
22 to 30°C is required although survival at higher temperatures (45°C) is not
uncommon. The plant can withstand a temperature of 10°C, but heavy and
prolonged frost will kill it. In natural conditions, Leucaena is not found to
thrive well above 500 masl, but when planted it can withstand up to an altitude
of 1600 metres. At higher elevations, however, Leucaena growth becomes
slower and the plant tends to remain a shrub.
The plant can grow in a range of soil pH from 5.0 to 8.0, but the growth in
acidic pH is poor and an outstanding growth is displayed at a pH range of 6.0-
7.7.

Weed Control: One of the major causes of failure or slow establishment of
Leucaena is weed. Until a height of 1-2 metres is attained, regular weeding is
advised. Larger areas, however, may require the application of herbicide.
Insects: Insect pests like mound-building ants attack young seedlings and
cause severe damage in some regions by eating the leaves and bark.
Toxicities: Researchers have found that Leucaena contains a toxic amino acid
called mimosine. This chemical causes hair loss and also affects foetal
development in non-ruminants. 3-5% of the total dry matter is occupied by
mimosine.
Method of cultivation: Seed or coppice can propagate Ipil ipil. Coppice
growth is faster than that of seedlings. Its seeds are broadcasted in raised beds
or in containers. Seedlings are planted during spring or summer rains. In a fuel-
wood plantation, a 2-3 year rotation is maintained.
Harvesting: Shrubby plants are cut back to a height of 1 meter for fodder
production. By cutting close to the ground every five years, it has remained in
vigorous conditions for 55 years in the Philippines. At a spacing of 3 meter it
can contribute about 100 kg N/ha/year to the soil. Dry matter yield of 25-30
mt/ha/year can be obtained by planting at 1 meter spacing. Leaves and pods
are very nutritious.
Seed inoculation is the practice of covering the seed surface with a nitrogen-
fixing bacteria (Rhizobium or Bradyrhizobium) prior to planting. The
bacteria penetrates the root, resulting in the formation of root nodules that fix
nitrogen from the air and make it readily available to the plant.
What is Inoculation?
Rhizobia are soil bacteria, which can infect the roots of legumes to form
effective nitrogen fixing nodules. Legume inoculants are a liquid or solid
substance that contains live rhizobia. Inoculation is simply bringing
rhizobia in contact with the seed or legume root. Modern inoculants have
millions of rhizobia per gram.

There are several types of modern inoculants:
1.Liquid cultures 2. Freeze-dried preparations 3. Oil -dried preparations on
talc, &4.Liquid broth cultures mixed with carrier material such as peat,
charcoal or lignite.
A commonly used method in Nepal:
Usually inoculant carrier used in Nepal is peat soil, either in the form of
powder or slurry. In case of slurry, 30-35 gm. of inoculant and required
amount of water are to be mixed with 1kg of seed. A 100 gm. of sugar or
molasses solution can be separately prepared to be mixed with the formerly
prepared solution. Sugar/molasses solution has two functions: firstly, it
helps in sticking the inoculants to the seed & secondly, it provides instant
food energy to the rhizobia for initial growth until they (host & organism)
establish the symbiotic relationships.
After the seeds are evenly mixed with the solutions it should be spread over
a plastic sheet under shade for drying. This will be ready for use after half
an hour. Inoculated seed should be preferably be used within 24 hours.

Unit 13
List out the toxicity found in grasses:
Grass Toxicity Symptoms Treatment
Jowar Cyanide
poisoning, leaf
can be poisonous
because of high
concentration of
hydrogen cyanide
especially in
younger dark blue
colored
Difficult to
breath,
motionless eye,
dilated pupil,
congested mucus
membrane
Supplement block
containing sulphur may
reduce risk of poisoning

Berseem Bloat/ tympani Ruminal tympany
or froathing bloat,
nausea, vomiting,
trouble breathing
Drenching with sodium
bi carbonate 150-200
gm in 1 litter of water or
oil, mineral 250 ml for
cattle , 3 ml for sheep/
goat
Lucerne Bloat Same as berseem Same as brseem
Guinea grass Hydrocunoc
poisoning (HCN),
hepatotoxin
which may cause
secondary photo
sensitization
Difficult
breathing, skin
irritation
Kept on darkness for
few day till recovery
Napier Oxalic acid
toxicity and
nitrate poisoning
Kidney stone,
constipation, dry
muzzle
Use citric acid
Ipil-ipil When eaten in
high
concentration, dry
mouth and weight
loss in non-
ruminant animals,
Toxic effect
include alopecia,
poor boy
condition or poor
weight and
infertility
Procedure of quality forage seed production:
Feed storage and the poor quality of available feed are major constrain to
increase livestock productivity sowing a new pasture or improving an existing
natural pasture requires a reliable source of seed because of unestablished
forage seed system in Nepal, stallholder farmer cannot access seed in their
nearby area. Thus besides feeding purpose farmer need to develop forage for
seed.

Legume seed should be dried as soon as possible after harvesting to achieve a
seed moisture 8-10 %. This ensure good seed viability. Seed can be sun dried
without damage to the seed. Grass seed should be heaped immediately harvest
so that they will sweat to assist final maturation of seed. Grass seed is more
sensitive than legume seed and should be dried slowly to maintain its viability.
Sun drying is not recommended because of this but grass seed can be regularly.
At least one/ day to ensure efficient drying. Dried seed is then threshed using
animals a mortar and pestle or beating with sticks or flasils.
Regular inspection of seed is essential to avoid damage to the seed. Threshed
seed is than cleaned to remove seed of contaminant species soil, chaff and poor
seeds. Once cleaned harvested seed must be stored in a cool dry place. The
length of life of a seed in storage depend on the environment in which the seed
stored. For storage beyond 5 years seed should be kept at temperature below
15 degree C with relative humidity below 4 %. An indicating of seed store
suitability can be calculated by adding the average temperature degree C and
the average relative humidity (5) from the store.
Eg, a seed tore with an average temperature of 20 degree C and average RH of
45% has a storage index of 20+45 = 65. Short term storage (>6 month) require
a storage index less than 80. Medium term storage (6-18 month) require a
storage index of less than 70 and long term storage (upto 5 years) require a
storage index of less than 50.
Identification of multipurpose fodder tree:
There are several tree species available in different agro ecological zone of
Nepal. More than 283 fodder tree, shrub are being utilized by the animals.
Among them, major 136 fodder tree and shrubs are selected that can be
promoted in the country.
Common
Name/Local
Name
Family Name Botanical
Name
Available Agro-eco
Zone
Terai Hills Mountain
Badahar Moraceae Artocarpus
lacucha
√ √ *

Kabro (kalo) Urticaceae Ficus infectoria
roxb
√ √ *
Kabro (seto) Urticaceae Ficus lacor
buch
√ √ *
Khasru Cupuli ferae Quercus
semecarpifolia
* * √
Kutmiro Listsea
polyantha juss
√ *
Khanyu Urticaceae Ficus cunia
buch
√ √ *
Nimaro Urticaceae Ficus
roxburghii wall
* √ *
Ipil-ipil leguminoseae Leucaena
leucocephala
√ √ *
Mulberry Moraceae Morus alba √ √
Pipal Ficus religiosa √ √ *
Bakaino Melia
azedarach
√ √
Dabdabe Burseraceae Garuga
pinnata Roxb
* √ *
Tanki Leguminosae Bauhinia
variegate
* √ *
Koiralo Leguminosae Bauhinia
variegate
* √ *
Forage seed production and fodder propagation techniques
Plant propagation is the process of creating new plants either by using seed or
plants. There are two types of propagation. Sexual and asexual. Sexual
propagation or reproduction is the union of the pollen and egg, drawing from
the genes of the two parent to create a new, third individual. Sexual
propagation involve the floral part of a plant. Asexual propagation involve
taking a part of one parent plant and causing it to regenerate itself into a new

plant. The resulting new plant is genetically identical its parent. Asexual
propagation involve the vegetation parts of a plant: stem, roots, leaves.
Sexual method of propagation:
It involve the union of the pollen (males) with the egg (female) to produce a
seed. The seed is made up of three parts: the outer seed coat, which protect the
seed, the endosperm, which is a food reserve, and the embryo, which is the
young plants itself. When a seed is mature and put in a favorable environment
it will germinate and form a new plant.
Asexual method of propagation:
The major method of asexual propagation are cutting, layering, division,
budding and grafting. Cutting involve rooting a severed piece of parent plants,
layering involves rooting a part of parent and then serving it and budding and
grafting is joining two plant from different varieties.
1. Cutting: many types of plants, both woody and herbaceous are frequently
propagated by cutting. A cutting vegetative plant part which is severed
from the parent plant in order to regenerate itself like forming a whole
new plant.
2. Layering: stem still attached to their parent plant may form roots where
they touch a rooting medium. Served from the parent, the rooted stem
because a new plant. This method of vegetative propagation called
layering, promote a high success rate because it prevents the water stress
and carbohydrate shortage that plague cutting.
3. Separation: is a term applied to a form of propagation by which plants
that produce bulbs or corns multiply.
4. Grafting: grafting and budding are method of sexual plant propagation
that join plant parts so they will grow as one plant. These techniques are
used to propagate cultivate that will not root well as cutting or whose
own root system are inadequate.

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