Waldeyer's ring consists of adenoid, tubal tonsils, palatine tonsils, and lingual tonsils. Adenoids can cause nasal obstruction, ear problems, and facial changes. Acute and chronic tonsillitis are caused by bacterial or viral infections and present with throat pain, difficulty swallowing, and fever. Complications include abscesses. Treatment involves antibiotics, analgesics, and possibly adenoidectomy or tonsillectomy to address infections or hypertrophy.
laryngeal malignancies, laryngeal cancer
Presentation prepared and compiled by highly experienced ENT teacher, Dr. Krishna Koirala from Nepal, for teaching undergraduate and postgraduate ENT students in the field of otorhinolaryngology.
A clear and concise explanation of the basic concepts in the subject matter concerned.
He is the Head of department with a sound knowledge in the field of ENT to teach both undergraduate and postgraduate ENT students
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laryngeal malignancies, laryngeal cancer
Presentation prepared and compiled by highly experienced ENT teacher, Dr. Krishna Koirala from Nepal, for teaching undergraduate and postgraduate ENT students in the field of otorhinolaryngology.
A clear and concise explanation of the basic concepts in the subject matter concerned.
He is the Head of department with a sound knowledge in the field of ENT to teach both undergraduate and postgraduate ENT students
Please find the power point on Labyrinthitis and its management. I tried to present it on understandable way and all the contents are reviewed by experts and from very reliable references. Thank you
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Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
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Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
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Hypertension is a chronic condition of concern due to its role in the causation of coronary heart diseases. Hypertension is a worldwide epidemic and important risk factor for coronary artery disease, stroke and renal diseases. Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels and is sufficient to maintain tissue perfusion during activity and rest. Hypertension is sustained elevation of BP. In adults, HTN exists when systolic blood pressure is equal to or greater than 140mmHg or diastolic BP is equal to or greater than 90mmHg. The
1. ACUTE & CHRONICACUTE & CHRONIC
ADENO TONSILLITISADENO TONSILLITIS
Dr. P. Karthikeyan D.L.O.,DNB(ENT)Dr. P. Karthikeyan D.L.O.,DNB(ENT)
Professor & HOD,Professor & HOD,
Dept. of ENT,Dept. of ENT,
MGMC&RI.MGMC&RI.
4. Naso pharyngeal bursaNaso pharyngeal bursa
It is an epithelial lined medianIt is an epithelial lined median
recess found within the adenoid mass andrecess found within the adenoid mass and
extends from pharyngeal mucosa to theextends from pharyngeal mucosa to the
periosteum of the basiocciput.periosteum of the basiocciput.
It represents the attachment ofIt represents the attachment of
notochord to the pharyngeal endodermnotochord to the pharyngeal endoderm
during embryonic life.during embryonic life.
5. Rathke’s pouch
• It is represented clinically by a dimple
above the adenoids.
• It is reminiscent of the buccal mucosal
invagination, to form the anterior lobe of
pituitary
6.
7. Lymphoid tissue in Lymph Node
waldeyer’s ring
1. Subepithelial in Position Subcutaneous
2. No demarcation between It has cortex,
Cortex and medulla medulla and germinal
centre.
3. Partly capsulated or non Capsulated
capsulated
4. Crypts or furrows - No crypts
present
5. No afferent, only efferent Both afferent and efferent.
8. Adenoids Tonsil
1. Luscka’s tonsil Faucial tonsil
2. Unilateral Bilateral
3. Furrows seen Crypts present
4. Present in the posterosuperior Between pillars-Oropharynx
wall of the nasopharynx
5. Pseudostratified ciliated Stratified squamous
columnar epithelium epithelium
6. Truncated pyramid Almond shaped
7. Uncapsulated Partly capsulated
8. Regresses completely Persist.
after puberty
9. • A tonsil presents two surfaces – a medial
and a lateral, and two poles – an upper
and a lower.
MEDIAL SURFACE
• Covered by non keratinising stratified
squamous epithelium
• 12 – 15 crypts.
• One of the crypts, situated near the upper
part of tonsil is very large and deep and is
called crypta magna or intratonsillar cleft
10. LATERAL SURFACE
• Well defined fibrous capsule, between the
capsule and the bed of tonsil is the loose
areolar tissue- peritonsillar space.
• Buccopharyngeal fascia.
• Superior constrictor & Styloglossus
muscles
• Pharyngobasilar fascia.
• Facial artery, submandibular salivary
gland, medial pterygoid muscle and the
angle of mandible.
11. • Tonsillar branch of facial Artery. This is
the main artery
• Ascending pharyngeal artery from external
carotid.
• Ascending palatine, a branch of facial
artery
• Dorsal linguae branches of lingual artery
• Descending palatine branch of maxillary
artery
12.
13. • Venous drainage
Paratonsillar vein- Dennis brown vein
• Lymphatic drainage
Jugulodigastric (tonsillar) node – ½ -1
inch below and behind the angle of
mandibule
• Nerve supply
Lesser palatine branches of
sphenopalatine ganglion (CN V) and
glossopharyngeal nerve provide sensory
nerve supply.
18. General symptoms
Adenoid facies
Elongated face with dull expression
Open mouth
The prominent and crowded upper teeth
Hyperplasia of gums
Hypoplasia of maxilla
Loss of nasolabial fold
Pinched nostrils
High arched palate
Drooling of saliva.
Loss of appetite
Abdominal pain – Mesentric adenitis
24. COMPLICATIONS
Haemorrhage usually seen in immediate post-operative
period.
Injury to Eustachian tube opening.
Injury to pharyngeal musculature and vertebrae due to
hyperextension of neck.
Gracielle’s sign – Anterior spinal ligament will get injured while
doing overenthusiastic adenoidectomy and produce neck
stiffness.
Velopharyngeal insufficiency.
Nasopharyngeal stenosis due to scarring.
34. D.D of membrane over the TonsilD.D of membrane over the Tonsil
1) Membranous Tonsillitis
2) Diptheria
3) Vincent’s angina
4) Im
5) Agranulocytosis
6) Leukaemia
7) Apthous ulcers
8) Oral thrush
35. Chronic TonsillitisChronic Tonsillitis
Etiology:
1) Complication of Acute Tonsillitis
2) Chronic Sinusitis may be a predisposing
factor
Types:
1. Chronic follicular
2. Chronic parenchymatous
3. Chronic fibrotic
41. TONSILLECTOMY
Indication
Chronic tonsillitis
Recurrent attacks of acute tonsillitis
4-6 weeks following an attacks of peritonsillar abscess (Interval
tonsillectomy)
Huge tonsil causing obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome.
Huge tonsil causing mechanical obstruction to swallowing.
Persistent carrier of Group – A Beta Haemolytic streptococcus
or diptheira bacilli.
Sarcoma or lymphoma
Benign tumours – Fibroma, papilloma.
42. UNILATERAL
1. Approach
Glosso-pharyngeal neurectomy in glossopharyngeal
neuralgia
Elongated styloid process.
UPPP
2. Tonsillar cyst, Tonsillolith.
3. Foreign body – tonsil.
4. Suspected malignancy for biopsy.
43. Methods of Tonsillectomy
1. Dissection method
2. Laser (Light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation )
Advantage: Less bleeding, less pain, less scarring,
quick healing.
Disadvantage: Cost of laser therapy is high.
.
44. 3. Cryosurgery
It utilizes freezing for excision of tissues with the help of
cryoprobe. Nitrous oxide cryoprobe can achieve a temperature of –
70c while liquefied nitrogen can cool upto –196c.
Mode of action:
1. Cell membrance ruptures due to the formation of intracellular ice
crystals.
2. Intracellular dehydration occurs due to ice crystallization.
3. Proteins become denatured.
4. Enzymatic inhibition follows destruction of cellular metabolism.
5. Local ischaemia and microthrombosis of blood vessels occur.
Advantage: Less bleeding, less pain
Dis advantage: Histopathology of the excised tissue is not
possible due to destruction of the tissue by
freezing.
45. 4 . Radiofrequency method
5 . Coblation Method
Advantage: Less bleeding, less pain, less scarring,
quick healing.
Disadvantage: Cost is high.
.
46. Contra indications
Absolute
1. Bleeding diathesis
2. Aneurysm of internal carotid artery.
3. Acute infection
Relative
1. During epidemic of polio.
2. Severe diabetes and hypertension.
3. Gross allergy and severe asthma.
4. Children under 3 years of age.
5. Hemoglobin level less than 10g %
47. Complications
1. Haemorhage
Primary
Reactionary
Secondary
2. Aspiration pneumonia
3. Collapse of lung
4. Injury to tonsillar pillars, uvula, soft palate results in
nasopharyngeal incompetence and nasal intonation.
5. Dental injury
6. Scoline apnoea – common in vaishnavas due to pseudocholine
esterase deficiency.
7. TM joint dislocation
8. Tonsillar remnants
9. Hypertrophy of lingual tonsil.
49. PERITONSILLAR ABSCESSPERITONSILLAR ABSCESS
(QUINSY)(QUINSY)
It is a collection of pus in the peritonsillarIt is a collection of pus in the peritonsillar
space which lies between the capsule ofspace which lies between the capsule of
tonsil and the superior constrictor muscletonsil and the superior constrictor muscle
50.
51. AETIOLOGY
• Peritonsillar abscess usually follows acute
tonsillitis
• First, one of the tonsillar crypts, usually
the crypta magna, gets infected and
sealed off. It forms an intratonsillar
abscess which then bursts through the
tonsillar capsule to set up peritonsillitis
and then an abscess.
• Culture of pus
• Growth of strept. Pyogenes, staph.
Aureus or anaerobic organisms. More
often the growth is mixed, with both
aerobic and anaerobic organisms.
52. CLINICAL FEATURES
• Peritonsillar abscess mostly affects adults
and rarely the children though acute
tonsillitis is more common in children
• General
• Fever (up to 104◦F) chills and rigors,
general malaise body aches headache
nausea and constipation
• Local
• Severe pain in throat
• Odynophagia
• Muffled and thich speech often called “hot
potato voice”
53. • Foul breath due to sepsis in the oral cavity
• Ipsilateral earache. This is referred pain via CN
IX which supplies both the tonsil and the ear.
• Trismus due to spasm of pterygoid muscles
• EXAMINATION
• The tonsil, pillars and soft on the involved side
are congested and swollen
• Uvula is swollen and oedematous and pushed to
the oposite side
• Bulge of the soft palate and anterior pillar
• Cervical lymphadenopathy is commonly seen
• Jugulodigastric lymph nodes
• Torticollis, patient keeps the neck tilted to the
side of abscess.
54. TREATMENT
• Hospitalisation
• Intravenous fluids to combat dehydration
• Antibiotics
• Analgesics like paracetamol
• Oral hygiene
• Incision and drainage of abscess. A
peritonsillar abscess is opened at the
point of maximum bulge above the upper
pole of tonsil or just lateral to the point of
junction of anterior pillar with a line drawn
through the base of uvula or midway
between base of uvula and 3rd molar.
55. • Interval tonsillectomy. Tonsils are
removed four to six weeks following an
attack of quinsy
• Abscess or hot tonsillectomy. Some
people prefer to do “hot” tonsillectomy
instead of incision and drainage. Abscess
tonsillectomy has the risk of rupture of the
abscess during anesthesia, and excessive
bleeding at the time of operation.
56. Complication
• Parapharyngeal abscess
• Oedema of larynx. Tracheostomy may be
required
• Septicaemia other complications like
endocarditis, nephritis, brain abscess may
occur.
• Pneumonitis or lung abscess. Due to
aspiration of pus, if spontaneous rupture
of abscess takes place
• Jugular vein thrombosis
• Spontaneous haemorrhage from carotid
artery or jugular vein