This document outlines guidelines for subsurface exploration for earth and rockfill dams. It recommends conducting exploration in multiple stages - reconnaissance, preliminary, and detailed pre-construction investigations. The preliminary stage involves initial testing to evaluate feasibility, while the detailed stage involves intensive exploration to define subsurface conditions for design. Exploration methods include test pits, trenches, drilling, geophysics, and hydrological and material testing. The extent of exploration depends on dam size and complexity, with greater coverage for taller dams. Exploration should characterize foundation soils and rock to sufficient depth for design.
This document discusses liquefaction of soil during earthquakes and its effects based on case studies. It covers:
1) Examples of liquefaction and its effects observed during earthquakes in Chile 1960, Japan 1964, Alaska 1964, and Caracas 1967 including settlements, tilting of structures, and damage depending on soil thickness.
2) Factors influencing liquefaction potential such as soil type, density, water content, and depth to water table based on a case study of the 1964 Niigata earthquake in Japan.
3) Options for mitigating liquefaction including soil densification, stabilization, drainage, and structural measures like reinforcement and foundation modification.
Okay, here are the steps to solve this:
1) Given:
Specific gravity (Gs) = 2.65
Void ratio (e) = 0.5
2) Critical hydraulic gradient (icr) is given by the equation:
icr = Gs - 1/(1+e)
3) Substitute the values:
icr = 2.65 - 1/(1+0.5)
= 2.65 - 1/1.5
= 2.65 - 0.667
= 1.983
So the critical hydraulic gradient for this sand deposit is 1.983.
River training involves engineering works constructed along rivers to guide and confine river flows, control river beds, and stabilize river alignments. The main goals of river training are to provide safe passage of floodwaters, prevent changes to the river course, protect banks from erosion, and maintain depths for navigation. Common river training works include levees, groins, pitched islands, bank protection, guide banks, and artificial cut-offs. Levees are earthen embankments that control flooding, while groins are embankments built perpendicular to flow that deflect currents away from banks. Pitched islands and guide banks help redistribute flows. Permanent works aim to achieve river stability, while temporary works provide interim solutions.
This document summarizes in-situ methods for determining soil properties, specifically the vane shear test and pressure meter tests.
The vane shear test directly measures the undrained shear strength of soft clays in the field by inserting a rotating vane and measuring the torque. Pressure meter tests measure the soil's stress-strain response by expanding a membrane probe against the soil and recording the resulting pressures and strains. Self-boring pressure meters can test undisturbed soil by drilling into the ground, while displacement pressure meters push into pre-drilled boreholes. Both provide fundamental soil properties with minimal empirical corrections needed.
Basics of groundwater hydrology in geotechnical engineering: Permeability - ...ohamza
This document provides an overview of permeability and Darcy's law. It discusses soils as porous media, defines concepts like hydraulic head and gradient. It explains Darcy's law and how permeability is affected by factors like temperature. It also describes methods to determine the coefficient of permeability in the laboratory, such as constant head and falling head permeability tests. Stratified soils are discussed and how permeability is calculated for layered soils with vertical or horizontal flow.
1) Open channel flow occurs when a surface of flow is open to the atmosphere, with only atmospheric pressure acting on the surface. Examples include rivers, streams, irrigation canals, and storm drains.
2) Open channel flows are classified based on whether the flow properties change over time (steady vs unsteady) or location (uniform vs non-uniform). Uniform steady flow has a constant depth at all locations and times.
3) The governing forces in open channel flows are inertia, viscosity, and gravity. Flow type is determined by the relative magnitudes of these forces, which can be laminar or turbulent depending on the Reynolds number, or subcritical or supercritical depending on the Froude number.
APPLICATION OF SPECIFIC ENERGY IN FLUID MECHANICSKaran Patel
The document discusses two applications of specific energy in fluid mechanics: 1) Flow through a rectangular channel transition where the width gradually reduces, and 2) Flow over a raised channel floor or "hump". For channel transitions, the specific energy at the initial and final sections must be equal, allowing analysis of how the water surface and flow depth change through the transition. For raised floors, the specific energy upstream minus the height raised gives the specific energy over the floor, enabling calculation of the maximum height the floor can be raised before flow becomes critical.
Factors influencing deflections – Short term deflections of uncracked members – Prediction of
long term deflections due to creep and shrinkage – Check for serviceability limit state of deflection.
Determination of anchorage zone stresses in post-tensioned beams by Magnel’s method, Guyon’s
method and IS1343 code – design of anchorage zone reinforcement – Check for transfer bond
length in pre-tensioned beams.
This document discusses liquefaction of soil during earthquakes and its effects based on case studies. It covers:
1) Examples of liquefaction and its effects observed during earthquakes in Chile 1960, Japan 1964, Alaska 1964, and Caracas 1967 including settlements, tilting of structures, and damage depending on soil thickness.
2) Factors influencing liquefaction potential such as soil type, density, water content, and depth to water table based on a case study of the 1964 Niigata earthquake in Japan.
3) Options for mitigating liquefaction including soil densification, stabilization, drainage, and structural measures like reinforcement and foundation modification.
Okay, here are the steps to solve this:
1) Given:
Specific gravity (Gs) = 2.65
Void ratio (e) = 0.5
2) Critical hydraulic gradient (icr) is given by the equation:
icr = Gs - 1/(1+e)
3) Substitute the values:
icr = 2.65 - 1/(1+0.5)
= 2.65 - 1/1.5
= 2.65 - 0.667
= 1.983
So the critical hydraulic gradient for this sand deposit is 1.983.
River training involves engineering works constructed along rivers to guide and confine river flows, control river beds, and stabilize river alignments. The main goals of river training are to provide safe passage of floodwaters, prevent changes to the river course, protect banks from erosion, and maintain depths for navigation. Common river training works include levees, groins, pitched islands, bank protection, guide banks, and artificial cut-offs. Levees are earthen embankments that control flooding, while groins are embankments built perpendicular to flow that deflect currents away from banks. Pitched islands and guide banks help redistribute flows. Permanent works aim to achieve river stability, while temporary works provide interim solutions.
This document summarizes in-situ methods for determining soil properties, specifically the vane shear test and pressure meter tests.
The vane shear test directly measures the undrained shear strength of soft clays in the field by inserting a rotating vane and measuring the torque. Pressure meter tests measure the soil's stress-strain response by expanding a membrane probe against the soil and recording the resulting pressures and strains. Self-boring pressure meters can test undisturbed soil by drilling into the ground, while displacement pressure meters push into pre-drilled boreholes. Both provide fundamental soil properties with minimal empirical corrections needed.
Basics of groundwater hydrology in geotechnical engineering: Permeability - ...ohamza
This document provides an overview of permeability and Darcy's law. It discusses soils as porous media, defines concepts like hydraulic head and gradient. It explains Darcy's law and how permeability is affected by factors like temperature. It also describes methods to determine the coefficient of permeability in the laboratory, such as constant head and falling head permeability tests. Stratified soils are discussed and how permeability is calculated for layered soils with vertical or horizontal flow.
1) Open channel flow occurs when a surface of flow is open to the atmosphere, with only atmospheric pressure acting on the surface. Examples include rivers, streams, irrigation canals, and storm drains.
2) Open channel flows are classified based on whether the flow properties change over time (steady vs unsteady) or location (uniform vs non-uniform). Uniform steady flow has a constant depth at all locations and times.
3) The governing forces in open channel flows are inertia, viscosity, and gravity. Flow type is determined by the relative magnitudes of these forces, which can be laminar or turbulent depending on the Reynolds number, or subcritical or supercritical depending on the Froude number.
APPLICATION OF SPECIFIC ENERGY IN FLUID MECHANICSKaran Patel
The document discusses two applications of specific energy in fluid mechanics: 1) Flow through a rectangular channel transition where the width gradually reduces, and 2) Flow over a raised channel floor or "hump". For channel transitions, the specific energy at the initial and final sections must be equal, allowing analysis of how the water surface and flow depth change through the transition. For raised floors, the specific energy upstream minus the height raised gives the specific energy over the floor, enabling calculation of the maximum height the floor can be raised before flow becomes critical.
Factors influencing deflections – Short term deflections of uncracked members – Prediction of
long term deflections due to creep and shrinkage – Check for serviceability limit state of deflection.
Determination of anchorage zone stresses in post-tensioned beams by Magnel’s method, Guyon’s
method and IS1343 code – design of anchorage zone reinforcement – Check for transfer bond
length in pre-tensioned beams.
1. The document discusses consolidation in soils, including terminology, oedometer tests, preconsolidation pressure, and Terzaghi's theory of one-dimensional consolidation.
2. Key points include that consolidation is the decrease in soil volume due to increased loading, and includes primary consolidation through pore water expulsion and secondary consolidation via soil molecule rearrangement.
3. Oedometer tests are used to determine soil compressibility and preconsolidation pressure, the maximum past effective stress.
4. Terzaghi's theory assumes consolidation is one-dimensional, and that excess pore pressures dissipate over time according to a consolidation equation.
The document discusses stresses in soil. It defines total stress, neutral stress (pore water pressure), and effective stress. Total stress is the stress from overburden soil and applied loads. Neutral stress is the pressure of water in soil voids. Effective stress is carried by soil particles and influences shear strength. The document also covers Boussinesq's method for estimating stresses in soil from point loads, assuming the soil is elastic, homogeneous, isotropic, and semi-infinite.
Wetlands are transitional lands between terrestrial and aquatic systems where water covers the land or is at or near the surface. Ahiron Beel wetland in India provides important functions like recreation, erosion control, flood buffering, nurseries, and wildlife habitat. Conservation efforts for Ahiron Beel focus on preserving wetland flora and fauna, preventing biotic interference, maintaining water quality, and preventing pollution. The wetland faces threats from population growth, agriculture, siltation, and pollution, so government protection and management efforts are needed to sustainably conserve its important resources and functions.
Geotechnical Engineering-II [Lec #1: Shear Strength of Soil]Muhammad Irfan
Class notes of Geotechnical Engineering course I used to teach at UET Lahore. Feel free to download the slide show.
Anyone looking to modify these files and use them for their own teaching purposes can contact me directly to get hold of editable version.
This document discusses lateral earth pressure and provides details on Rankine's theory and graphical methods for determining active and passive earth pressures. It explains that lateral earth pressure is exerted by soil on retaining structures and depends on whether the structure is stationary or moving towards/away from the soil mass. Rankine's theory assumes dry, homogeneous soil and a vertical wall. Rebhann and Culmann's graphical methods can be used to locate the failure plane and determine the magnitude and direction of lateral earth pressures based on the soil's friction angle and the structure's orientation.
Henri Darcy conducted experiments on water flow through sand columns and developed Darcy's law, which states that the flow rate is proportional to the hydraulic gradient and permeability of the material. Darcy's law forms the basis for analyzing groundwater flow. Groundwater flows from areas of higher total hydraulic head to lower head, where total head is equal to the elevation head plus pressure and velocity heads. Hydraulic conductivity, K, is a measure of how easily water can flow through the material and can be estimated using correlation methods based on soil properties or determined directly through hydraulic tests. Darcy's law is only valid for laminar flow conditions.
The document summarizes the plate load test, which determines the ultimate bearing capacity and settlement of soil under a given load. The test involves setting up a steel plate on the soil surface and applying a total load that is divided by the plate area to determine bearing capacity. Testing can be done via gravity or truss methods. Results are interpreted, but the test only reflects soil characteristics to twice the plate depth and doesn't indicate long-term settlements, particularly for cohesive soils. Values may also be conservative for large foundations in dense sands.
Soil mechanics is the study of soil and its behavior. It began to develop in the 18th century and has since evolved through several phases. Early developments included studies of soil properties, slopes, and retaining walls. In the 19th century, mechanics was applied to soil problems and theories of stress, shear strength, and consolidation were established. Modern soil mechanics was shaped by Karl Terzaghi in the early 20th century through his theories of effective stress, consolidation, bearing capacity, and slope stability. Today, soil mechanics is applied to foundation design, pavement, retaining structures, embankments, dams and other geotechnical problems.
About Subsurface investigation, Depth of foundation, Significant depth, Types of investigation, Steps involved, Methods of boring, Types of samples and samplers, Core recovery and RQD.
Energy dissipaters are needed when water is released over a spillway to prevent scouring downstream. Various devices can be used, including baffle walls, deflectors, and staggered blocks, which reduce kinetic energy by converting it to turbulence and heat. Hydraulic jumps also dissipate energy by maintaining a high water level downstream. The type of dissipater used depends on the tailwater rating curve in relation to the jump height curve and the flow conditions. Stilling basins, sloping aprons, and roller buckets are suitable for different tailwater classifications.
Lecture 07 permeability and seepage (11-dec-2021)HusiShah
This document discusses permeability and seepage in geotechnical engineering. It begins by defining permeability as a measure of a soil's ability to allow water to flow through its pores or voids. It then discusses Darcy's law, which describes water flow through porous media, and how permeability/hydraulic conductivity is measured in the laboratory. The document also covers the Laplace equation for two-dimensional water flow and flow nets, which can be used to model groundwater flow patterns. It provides examples of how flow nets are constructed and how they can be used to calculate water flow and seepage pressures.
This document summarizes a student project using HEC-HMS software to model rainfall runoff. The project aims to study and simulate the rainfall runoff process, learn how to use the modeling software, prepare a draft model, and compute and model runoff. Key aspects of the model include subdividing the area into sub-basins representing different land uses like residential and cultivated areas, inputting precipitation data and metrological models, using the SCS curve number loss model to compute losses, and running a simulation to output results.
This document discusses correlations between various geotechnical properties and the void ratio of soils. It defines void ratio as the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids. Typical void ratio ranges are provided for different soil types. Relationships are presented between void ratio and properties such as unit weight, moisture content, maximum and minimum void ratios, relative density, shear modulus, hydraulic conductivity, preconsolidation pressure, and compression index. Graphs illustrate how properties such as shear strength and hydraulic conductivity vary with changes in void ratio.
This document provides information on the design of unlined canals in alluvial soil based on Kennedy's theory and Lacey's theory. Kennedy's theory relates the critical velocity to the full supply depth and introduces a critical velocity ratio to account for different silt grades. Lacey's theory is based on the concept of a regime channel where silt grade and charge remain constant. It provides equations to calculate velocity, hydraulic mean depth, area, and bed slope without relying on trial and error. Both theories have drawbacks as they do not fully consider variables like changing silt grade and concentration.
Question bank of Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering Oral/VIva ExaminationSahil Salvi
This document contains 55 questions related to hydrology and water resource engineering for an oral examination. The questions cover a wide range of topics including types of precipitation, the engineering hydrology cycle, rainfall and runoff measurement methods, infiltration, evaporation and transpiration, velocity and discharge measurement, hydrographs, flood estimation methods, irrigation concepts and methods, groundwater occurrence and well hydraulics, reservoir planning and sediment control, and automatic weather stations. The questions are intended to comprehensively test a candidate's knowledge of hydrology and water resource engineering principles, calculations, and applications.
Class notes of Geotechnical Engineering course I used to teach at UET Lahore. Feel free to download the slide show.
Anyone looking to modify these files and use them for their own teaching purposes can contact me directly to get hold of editable version.
Class 2 Grain Size Analysis ( Geotechnical Engineering )Hossam Shafiq I
This document provides an overview of grain size analysis methods for geotechnical engineering laboratory work at Texas Tech University. It discusses sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis, which are two common techniques used to determine the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample. Sieve analysis is applicable to granular soils with little or no fines, while hydrometer analysis is used for soils with small grain sizes less than 0.075mm. The document reviews the procedures, calculations, and concepts involved in each analysis method, such as effective size, uniformity coefficient, and correction factors applied.
Shallow excavations up to 6 meters deep are commonly used for site investigations and surveys to study subsurface composition and structure. Excavations less than 2 meters are done by hand, between 2-4 meters use a wheeled backhoe, and 4-6 meters use a hydraulic excavator. Deeper excavations over 6 meters use drilling rig machines, which allow extraction of soils and rocks to greater depths in a faster, easier manner compared to other methods, though they require more skilled labor and are louder.
This document describes the pit composting method. Pit composting involves digging a pit in the ground and filling it with layers of organic materials like plant waste, manure, and kitchen scraps. The layers are alternated with a liquid inoculant and kept moist. After several months, the organic material will have decomposed to produce compost. Benefits of pit composting include containing odors and being inexpensive and simple to implement, though it requires more labor than other composting methods and lacks aeration.
1. The document discusses consolidation in soils, including terminology, oedometer tests, preconsolidation pressure, and Terzaghi's theory of one-dimensional consolidation.
2. Key points include that consolidation is the decrease in soil volume due to increased loading, and includes primary consolidation through pore water expulsion and secondary consolidation via soil molecule rearrangement.
3. Oedometer tests are used to determine soil compressibility and preconsolidation pressure, the maximum past effective stress.
4. Terzaghi's theory assumes consolidation is one-dimensional, and that excess pore pressures dissipate over time according to a consolidation equation.
The document discusses stresses in soil. It defines total stress, neutral stress (pore water pressure), and effective stress. Total stress is the stress from overburden soil and applied loads. Neutral stress is the pressure of water in soil voids. Effective stress is carried by soil particles and influences shear strength. The document also covers Boussinesq's method for estimating stresses in soil from point loads, assuming the soil is elastic, homogeneous, isotropic, and semi-infinite.
Wetlands are transitional lands between terrestrial and aquatic systems where water covers the land or is at or near the surface. Ahiron Beel wetland in India provides important functions like recreation, erosion control, flood buffering, nurseries, and wildlife habitat. Conservation efforts for Ahiron Beel focus on preserving wetland flora and fauna, preventing biotic interference, maintaining water quality, and preventing pollution. The wetland faces threats from population growth, agriculture, siltation, and pollution, so government protection and management efforts are needed to sustainably conserve its important resources and functions.
Geotechnical Engineering-II [Lec #1: Shear Strength of Soil]Muhammad Irfan
Class notes of Geotechnical Engineering course I used to teach at UET Lahore. Feel free to download the slide show.
Anyone looking to modify these files and use them for their own teaching purposes can contact me directly to get hold of editable version.
This document discusses lateral earth pressure and provides details on Rankine's theory and graphical methods for determining active and passive earth pressures. It explains that lateral earth pressure is exerted by soil on retaining structures and depends on whether the structure is stationary or moving towards/away from the soil mass. Rankine's theory assumes dry, homogeneous soil and a vertical wall. Rebhann and Culmann's graphical methods can be used to locate the failure plane and determine the magnitude and direction of lateral earth pressures based on the soil's friction angle and the structure's orientation.
Henri Darcy conducted experiments on water flow through sand columns and developed Darcy's law, which states that the flow rate is proportional to the hydraulic gradient and permeability of the material. Darcy's law forms the basis for analyzing groundwater flow. Groundwater flows from areas of higher total hydraulic head to lower head, where total head is equal to the elevation head plus pressure and velocity heads. Hydraulic conductivity, K, is a measure of how easily water can flow through the material and can be estimated using correlation methods based on soil properties or determined directly through hydraulic tests. Darcy's law is only valid for laminar flow conditions.
The document summarizes the plate load test, which determines the ultimate bearing capacity and settlement of soil under a given load. The test involves setting up a steel plate on the soil surface and applying a total load that is divided by the plate area to determine bearing capacity. Testing can be done via gravity or truss methods. Results are interpreted, but the test only reflects soil characteristics to twice the plate depth and doesn't indicate long-term settlements, particularly for cohesive soils. Values may also be conservative for large foundations in dense sands.
Soil mechanics is the study of soil and its behavior. It began to develop in the 18th century and has since evolved through several phases. Early developments included studies of soil properties, slopes, and retaining walls. In the 19th century, mechanics was applied to soil problems and theories of stress, shear strength, and consolidation were established. Modern soil mechanics was shaped by Karl Terzaghi in the early 20th century through his theories of effective stress, consolidation, bearing capacity, and slope stability. Today, soil mechanics is applied to foundation design, pavement, retaining structures, embankments, dams and other geotechnical problems.
About Subsurface investigation, Depth of foundation, Significant depth, Types of investigation, Steps involved, Methods of boring, Types of samples and samplers, Core recovery and RQD.
Energy dissipaters are needed when water is released over a spillway to prevent scouring downstream. Various devices can be used, including baffle walls, deflectors, and staggered blocks, which reduce kinetic energy by converting it to turbulence and heat. Hydraulic jumps also dissipate energy by maintaining a high water level downstream. The type of dissipater used depends on the tailwater rating curve in relation to the jump height curve and the flow conditions. Stilling basins, sloping aprons, and roller buckets are suitable for different tailwater classifications.
Lecture 07 permeability and seepage (11-dec-2021)HusiShah
This document discusses permeability and seepage in geotechnical engineering. It begins by defining permeability as a measure of a soil's ability to allow water to flow through its pores or voids. It then discusses Darcy's law, which describes water flow through porous media, and how permeability/hydraulic conductivity is measured in the laboratory. The document also covers the Laplace equation for two-dimensional water flow and flow nets, which can be used to model groundwater flow patterns. It provides examples of how flow nets are constructed and how they can be used to calculate water flow and seepage pressures.
This document summarizes a student project using HEC-HMS software to model rainfall runoff. The project aims to study and simulate the rainfall runoff process, learn how to use the modeling software, prepare a draft model, and compute and model runoff. Key aspects of the model include subdividing the area into sub-basins representing different land uses like residential and cultivated areas, inputting precipitation data and metrological models, using the SCS curve number loss model to compute losses, and running a simulation to output results.
This document discusses correlations between various geotechnical properties and the void ratio of soils. It defines void ratio as the ratio of volume of voids to volume of solids. Typical void ratio ranges are provided for different soil types. Relationships are presented between void ratio and properties such as unit weight, moisture content, maximum and minimum void ratios, relative density, shear modulus, hydraulic conductivity, preconsolidation pressure, and compression index. Graphs illustrate how properties such as shear strength and hydraulic conductivity vary with changes in void ratio.
This document provides information on the design of unlined canals in alluvial soil based on Kennedy's theory and Lacey's theory. Kennedy's theory relates the critical velocity to the full supply depth and introduces a critical velocity ratio to account for different silt grades. Lacey's theory is based on the concept of a regime channel where silt grade and charge remain constant. It provides equations to calculate velocity, hydraulic mean depth, area, and bed slope without relying on trial and error. Both theories have drawbacks as they do not fully consider variables like changing silt grade and concentration.
Question bank of Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering Oral/VIva ExaminationSahil Salvi
This document contains 55 questions related to hydrology and water resource engineering for an oral examination. The questions cover a wide range of topics including types of precipitation, the engineering hydrology cycle, rainfall and runoff measurement methods, infiltration, evaporation and transpiration, velocity and discharge measurement, hydrographs, flood estimation methods, irrigation concepts and methods, groundwater occurrence and well hydraulics, reservoir planning and sediment control, and automatic weather stations. The questions are intended to comprehensively test a candidate's knowledge of hydrology and water resource engineering principles, calculations, and applications.
Class notes of Geotechnical Engineering course I used to teach at UET Lahore. Feel free to download the slide show.
Anyone looking to modify these files and use them for their own teaching purposes can contact me directly to get hold of editable version.
Class 2 Grain Size Analysis ( Geotechnical Engineering )Hossam Shafiq I
This document provides an overview of grain size analysis methods for geotechnical engineering laboratory work at Texas Tech University. It discusses sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis, which are two common techniques used to determine the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample. Sieve analysis is applicable to granular soils with little or no fines, while hydrometer analysis is used for soils with small grain sizes less than 0.075mm. The document reviews the procedures, calculations, and concepts involved in each analysis method, such as effective size, uniformity coefficient, and correction factors applied.
Shallow excavations up to 6 meters deep are commonly used for site investigations and surveys to study subsurface composition and structure. Excavations less than 2 meters are done by hand, between 2-4 meters use a wheeled backhoe, and 4-6 meters use a hydraulic excavator. Deeper excavations over 6 meters use drilling rig machines, which allow extraction of soils and rocks to greater depths in a faster, easier manner compared to other methods, though they require more skilled labor and are louder.
This document describes the pit composting method. Pit composting involves digging a pit in the ground and filling it with layers of organic materials like plant waste, manure, and kitchen scraps. The layers are alternated with a liquid inoculant and kept moist. After several months, the organic material will have decomposed to produce compost. Benefits of pit composting include containing odors and being inexpensive and simple to implement, though it requires more labor than other composting methods and lacks aeration.
An Act providing stronger measures against unlawful practices, businesses and schemes of matching and offering Filipinos to foreign nationals for purposes of marriage or common law partnership, repealing for the purpose Republic Act No. 6955, also referred to as the "Anti-Mail Order Bride Law"
1. The document discusses subsurface exploration for geotechnical engineering projects. Subsurface exploration involves methods like trial pits, boreholes, and geophysical tests to understand soil conditions below the surface.
2. Proper subsurface exploration is important for foundation design, construction planning, and other aspects of civil engineering projects. The document outlines factors that determine the scope and methods of exploration for different project types.
3. Key methods discussed include trial pits, hand auger and mechanical boreholes, wash boring, and sampling techniques to obtain representative, disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for testing and analysis. Guidelines are provided on spacing, depth and other aspects of effective subsurface exploration.
The advantages and disadvantages of site investigation tools and exploratory ...George Majunting
This document discusses and compares the advantages and disadvantages of various site investigation tools and exploratory techniques used in geoenvironmental engineering. It examines earth augers, bailers, spring steel fingers, split spoon samplers, grab sampling, hand augers and split barrel devices, test pits, and boreholes. It concludes that site investigation equipment is important for obtaining necessary data before beginning any construction, and that each tool has its own strengths and weaknesses, with errors potentially from human negligence as well as equipment.
This document discusses different methods of boring including auger, auger and shell, wash, percussion, and rotary boring. It provides details on each method such as the types of soil they are used in, how they operate both manually and mechanically, and their applications. The main methods discussed are auger boring which is used in sandy and soft soils, wash boring which uses water jets to disintegrate soil, and rotary boring which uses diamond or shot bits to take undistributed soil samples from hard and rocky areas. In conclusion, boring methods are used for soil testing, studying soil strata, and obtaining information about fossils, minerals, and other subsurface materials.
This document summarizes the salient features, issues, and concerns regarding the implementation of Republic Act 9262 or the Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 in the Philippines. Key provisions of the law include barangay, temporary, and permanent protection orders; classifying violence against women as a public crime; and providing additional leave and support services to victims. However, challenges remain in enforcing the law, including some judges who believe the law is unfair to men or unconstitutional, and a view that the law destroys family unity. Solutions proposed include specializing courts to handle violence against women cases and increasing public awareness and education on women's rights.
This document discusses subsoil exploration, which involves collecting soil data through field and laboratory investigations to assess soil properties at a site. The main objectives are to determine the nature, depth, thickness, and extent of soil strata, as well as groundwater depth and properties. Exploration methods include direct techniques like test pits and borings, and indirect techniques like sounding tests and geophysical methods. Standard penetration tests are commonly used to determine properties of cohesionless soils by counting blows required to penetrate the soil. Corrections are applied to penetration values to account for overburden pressure and sample dilatancy.
The document discusses various methods for soil exploration including test trenches, auger borings, rotary drilling, and geophysical methods. It also discusses soil sampling techniques for obtaining both disturbed and undisturbed samples. Common stages in a site investigation are described including desk studies, field investigations, laboratory testing, and reporting. The purpose of soil investigations is to determine subsurface soil conditions to influence foundation design and construction.
Advantages and limitations of subjective test itemsTest Generator
In the world of test creation software and online exam makers, we often hear talk of objective and subjective questions and their differing effects on test takers. Take a look at our presentation for a quick overview.
This document discusses human trafficking in the Philippines and Republic Act 9208, also known as the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003. It defines human trafficking and the acts that constitute trafficking in persons. It also outlines the penalties for trafficking offenses and acts that promote trafficking. Additionally, it discusses the rights of trafficking victims and the roles and responsibilities of the Inter-Agency Council Against Trafficking and other government agencies in combating human trafficking.
Site investigation involves determining the soil layers and properties beneath a proposed structure. It helps select the foundation type and depth, evaluate load capacity, estimate settlement, and identify potential issues. The exploration program uses methods like test pits, auger and wash borings, probing, and geophysics to obtain samples and measure properties. A site investigation includes planning borings and tests, executing fieldwork, and reporting the findings and recommendations.
The document discusses soil investigation methods used to characterize soil properties for engineering projects. It describes different soil horizons defined by composition and depth. Key soil characteristics discussed include color, texture, aggregation, porosity, ion content, and pH. Common soil investigation techniques are also summarized, such as trial pitting, dynamic probe testing, cable percussive boreholes, and rotary drilled boreholes. The purposes of soil investigations are to determine suitability for construction and adequate foundation design while anticipating difficulties.
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN ACT of 2004Sharon Geroquia
The Anti-Violence Against Women & Their Children Act of 2004 defines and punishes various types of violence against women including physical, psychological, sexual, and economic abuse. It protects women and their children from intimate partners, provides protection orders, and establishes the duties of law enforcement. The law also provides counseling for perpetrators and rights for victims, including confidentiality of records. Violence is defined broadly and penalties are established for failure to report incidents or comply with protection orders. The goal is to promote safety, prevent further harm, and allow victims to regain control of their lives.
Republic Act No. 7787- An Act Declaring Sexual Harassment Unlawful in the Emp...Joey S.
This document summarizes Republic Act No. 7877, also known as the Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995. The key points are:
1) It declares all forms of sexual harassment in employment, education, and training environments unlawful.
2) It defines work, education, or training-related sexual harassment and prohibits making sexual favors a condition of employment, education, or benefits.
3) It requires employers and heads of offices/institutions to prevent sexual harassment, create committees to investigate complaints, and disseminate the law.
4) Employers are liable for damages if they fail to take action after being informed of harassment. Individuals can also pursue independent legal action.
The document summarizes the key provisions of the Anti-Violence Against Women & Their Children Act of 2004 in the Philippines. It defines violence against women and their children and outlines the types of physical, psychological, sexual, and economic abuse covered by the law. It describes the protections, orders, duties, and penalties established to prevent further acts of violence and safeguard victims. The law aims to promote the safety and protection of women and children from any person with whom they have a relationship.
1892 soil investigation for foundationsChandra Mouli
This document provides the code of practice for subsurface investigation for foundations in India. It outlines the importance of subsurface exploration to understand soil and groundwater conditions at construction sites. The document discusses site reconnaissance, previous land use history, suitable investigation methods like trial pits, boreholes, geophysical tests. It provides guidance on number and spacing of exploration points based on site size and geology. Exploration depth should be 1.5 times the width of foundation below foundation level. The code aims to help engineers obtain complete subsurface information for foundation design and construction.
Minning Application and Remote Sensing Using Aster ImageryHrishikesh Satpute
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MINING SCENARIO IN INDIA
3. ALL ABOUT ‘ASTER’
4. APPLICATIONS OF ASTER
5. REMOTE SENSING IN MINING
6. GIS FOR MINERAL EXPLORATION
7. CASE STUDIES & ANALYSIS
The document outlines the process a geologist would follow to evaluate raw material reserves for a proposed cement plant. This includes:
1. Conducting a literature review and reconnaissance visits to identify potential sites.
2. Performing detailed field mapping, drilling, and core logging at priority sites to understand the geology below surface.
3. Interpreting drilling results to determine the deposit's structure, quality, and overall reserves that could supply the plant long-term.
The goal is to prove that sufficient reserves exist of chemically suitable materials that can be economically extracted to meet the plant's needs.
SOIL EXPLORATION AND GEOTECHNICAL DESIGN OF A FOUNDATIONIRJET Journal
This document summarizes a soil exploration and geotechnical design study for the foundation of a proposed multi-story commercial building. It first describes conducting a site investigation that included borehole drilling, soil sampling, and laboratory testing to characterize the soil properties. The results indicated the soil at shallow depths was unsuitable to support the building loads with a shallow foundation. Therefore, a pile foundation was selected, with the design involving calculating the load capacity of piles based on their end bearing into stronger soil or rock layers at depth. The document provides details of the site location, soil conditions, shallow foundation capacity calculations, and pile foundation design methodology.
The document summarizes common stages in soil exploration investigations which include desk study, site reconnaissance, field investigation including preliminary and detailed stages, laboratory testing, report writing, and follow up investigations. It describes various methods of soil exploration such as trial pits, trenches, borings using different tools, standard penetration testing, plate load testing, and geophysical methods like electrical resistivity and seismic methods. The key objectives of soil exploration are to determine soil conditions and properties to aid foundation design and construction.
The document summarizes the stages of a site investigation which includes a desk study, site reconnaissance, detailed exploration and sampling, field/in-situ testing, and laboratory testing. The objectives are to assess suitability, enable adequate design, plan construction, determine ground changes, and document the investigation in a report. Site investigations involve exploring ground conditions through methods like boreholes, trial pits, and geophysical surveys to inform engineering design decisions.
THE EFFECT OF GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES ON THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SELECTED SOI...IAEME Publication
The document summarizes a study on the geotechnical properties and bearing capacity of soils in Al-Najaf Governorate, Iraq. Laboratory and field tests were conducted including standard penetration tests, water level observations, and permeability tests. The soils were found to be predominantly clayey with high plasticity (CH), and groundwater was detected between 0.5-0.9 meters below surface. Bearing capacity was calculated using dynamic and static methods, ranging from 21.45-31.35 tonnes/m2 and 9.82-14.20 tonnes/m2 respectively. The study concluded the soils will require engineering treatments before construction.
Prediction of Surface Subsidence and Its MonitoringVR M
This dissertation examines surface subsidence prediction and monitoring related to underground coal mining in India. The author develops an empirical relationship to predict subsidence profiles based on collected subsidence data. Various conventional and advanced surveying techniques for monitoring subsidence are also studied. It is recommended to use tacheometry surveys and GPS to efficiently monitor vertical and horizontal ground movements in Indian coal mines.
The document summarizes the key aspects of subsurface investigations for engineering projects. It discusses the purposes of site investigations, planning exploration programs, common exploration techniques like boreholes and sampling methods, and how to document and report the findings in a subsurface investigation report. The goal is to efficiently obtain essential subsurface data to inform foundation design and construction methods while minimizing costs.
IRJET- Liquefaction Analysis for Kutch Region using Deterministic Insitu ...IRJET Journal
This document analyzes liquefaction potential in the Kutch region of India using deterministic in-situ analysis software. Standard penetration test data from 12 boreholes was used to identify liquefiable layers, calculate the factor of safety against liquefaction, and estimate potential vertical settlement and lateral displacement. The analysis found generally low blow counts in the top 7 meters, indicating shallow layers are liquefaction-prone. Accounting for liquefaction hazards is important for foundation design given Kutch's seismic activity, including a 2001 earthquake that caused widespread liquefaction failures.
This document provides guidelines for cuttings in railway formations in India. It discusses the unique challenges posed by cut sections passing through varying soil and rock conditions. Proper surveys, geology analysis, design, construction, and maintenance are important to ensure safe and stable cuttings. The guidelines aim to educate engineers on evaluating failure risks and implementing best practices at every stage from planning to post-construction monitoring.
This project proposal seeks funding to analyze swelling clay near Tribhuvan International Airport (TIA) in Kathmandu and reconstruct a damaged road. The proposal outlines collecting soil samples from within 2-4 meters of the surface, testing the samples to determine soil consistency, clay content, and mineral composition, and reconstructing the road with a safety factor over 1. The total anticipated budget is 250,000 Nepali rupees.
This document provides the standard test method for evaluating the performance of screed board concrete vibrators by measuring their ability to compact concrete. The test involves vibrating a 180mm thick concrete slab with a vibrator and taking density measurements from cores cut from the slab. If the density from each core is at least 93% of the maximum theoretical density, the vibrator passes the test. This direct measurement of compaction achieved provides a better assessment of a vibrator's quality than indirect measurements of vibration characteristics alone.
Geological site investigation for Civil Engineering FoundationsDr.Anil Deshpande
Aim to introduce Preliminary geological Investigations for fulfilling knowledge about geological need to determine engineering properties of foundation rocks and check the suitability & feasibility of site wherein selection of site plays a crucial role to avoid future implications in civil engineering projects.
Lecture about foundation engineering.pptxambipathi1986
This document discusses site investigation and subsoil exploration methods for foundation engineering. It describes the objectives of site investigation as determining surface and subsurface conditions to assess site suitability and aid in design. Key methods discussed include reconnaissance, maps, aerial photography, test pits, auger borings, wash borings, rotary drilling, and percussion drilling. The spacing and depth of borings depends on the structure type and importance, soil conditions, and previous investigations. The goal is to characterize soil/rock strata, groundwater, and obtain samples to inform foundation design.
Landslide investigation in field. describe the procedure to find the shallow or large scale landslide in field. To understand Landslide you should walk through whole Landslide.
Distribution of petroleum product within the oil rich Niger Delta area of Nigeria is a daunting
task because of its deltaic nature. To solve this challenge, fixed fuel dispensing stations will be built in the
coastal environment to receive and make supplies available to fishermen and marine transporters. Building of
such fuel stations require proper foundation design. Soil test results of the region was obtained and a foundation
design was made to ascertain the number of piles pile depth, pile spacing, skin friction, lateral load bearing
capacity and end bearing capacity. API codes where used to check and ensure that the results obtained are
within safety limits. This will ensure that the offshore structure completes it intended and designed life span.
This document provides the code of practice for the design and construction of conical and hyperbolic paraboloidal shell foundations. It discusses the preliminary design considerations for shell foundations, including determining the soil design to proportion the foundation dimensions based on allowable bearing pressure and net loading intensity, as well as the structural design of the shell. It also provides figures illustrating reinforcement details for conical and hyperbolic paraboloidal shell foundations. The code covers the relevant terminology and information needed for design, and notes the membrane analysis approach is commonly used for structural design of shell foundations.
28-5.21 Company Profile of Pyrmaid structural consultant.pptxBoopathi Yoganathan
Pyramid Structural Consultant provides structural design, building approval, and construction services. They have a team of experienced engineers and workers who use software like AutoCAD and STAAD to complete structural designs for RCC and steel buildings. Notable projects include the design of a G+1 residential building in Namakkal. They are located in Puduchatram, Namakkal and can be found on LinkedIn and Facebook.
This document provides a bonafide certificate for a project report on the study of mechanical properties of eco-friendly economic concrete. It certifies that the project was conducted by three students, M.Vineeth, Y.Boopathi, and P.Murali, in partial fulfillment of their Bachelor of Engineering degree from Kongu Engineering College. The project investigated replacing natural aggregates with steel slag aggregates and M-sand to produce more sustainable concrete. Tests were conducted to determine the compressive strength, split tensile strength, modulus of rupture, and modulus of elasticity of concrete mixes with varying replacement levels.
The document describes an experimental investigation into the properties of concrete with different replacement percentages of natural aggregates with manufactured sand and steel slag. The methodology involves collecting cement, fine aggregates (natural sand and m-sand), coarse aggregates, and steel slag. The mix design for M20 grade concrete is calculated and concrete specimens are cast. The specimens are cured and then tested to determine their mechanical properties. The results are compared to those of conventional concrete to evaluate the suitability of manufactured sand and steel slag as partial replacements for natural aggregates in concrete.
The document discusses two methods for mesh refinement - the p-method and h-method. The p-method increases the order of the polynomial used in the finite element model, allowing for more accurate results without changing the mesh. The h-method reduces the size of elements to create a finer mesh, better approximating the real solution in areas of high stress gradients. Both methods aim to improve the accuracy of finite element analysis results, with the p-method doing so without requiring changes to the mesh.
This document provides guidance on using epoxy injection to repair cracks in concrete structures. The method involves drilling holes along cracks, injecting epoxy under pressure, and allowing it to seep into the cracks. It can repair cracks as small as 0.002 inches. Epoxy injection requires skilled workers and specialized equipment. While it can effectively repair cracks temporarily, the underlying issues causing the cracks may remain if not addressed.
An embedded system is a dedicated computer system that performs specific tasks. An important application of embedded systems is anti-lock braking systems (ABS) in automobiles. ABS uses sensors and electronic control modules to monitor wheel speed and automatically modulate brake pressure to prevent wheel lockup and maintain steering control during emergency braking. By preventing skidding, ABS can help drivers stop more safely and shorten stopping distances on wet or slippery surfaces compared to standard brakes. ABS works by pulsing the brakes rapidly when it detects a wheel is about to lock up, which allows the wheel to continue turning and maintaining traction with the road.
This document discusses past earthquakes in India and retrofitting techniques for masonry structures. It summarizes the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, which had a magnitude of 9.1-9.3 making it one of the largest ever recorded. Over 230,000 people were killed across 14 countries by the resulting tsunamis. The document then discusses failure modes of confined masonry walls and retrofitting techniques to improve seismic resistance, including adding horizontal reinforcement, improving wall density and tie columns. Key factors for seismic resistance of confined masonry structures are also summarized.
The document provides guidelines for selecting, splicing, installing, and protecting open cable ends for resistance-type measuring devices in concrete and masonry dams. It discusses cable specifications, approved splicing methods including vulcanized rubber splices, rubber sleeve covering, and self-bonding tape. It also covers cable and conduit selection, including choosing the proper conduit size based on the number and size of cables to be run. Proper installation techniques are outlined to protect cable runs within concrete structures.
This document provides information on an Indian Standard (IS) for a unified nomenclature of workmen for civil engineering. It was adopted in 1982 by the Indian Standards Institution Construction Management Sectional Committee. The standard aims to unify the different names used for workmen engaged in civil engineering works across India. It then lists the unified nomenclature for various types of workmen and for carts/animals commonly used in civil engineering works.
This document provides details on the design and construction of floors and roofs using precast reinforced or prestressed concrete ribbed or cored slab units. It specifies dimensions for the precast units, including widths up to 3000mm for ribbed units and 2100mm for cored units. It also provides requirements for material strengths, structural design considerations, and loads to be accounted for in design according to other relevant Indian Standards.
This document provides definitions for key terms related to concrete monolith structures used in port and harbour construction. It defines elements like the bottom plug, cutting edge, deck slab, dewatering, fascia wall, filling, kentledge, kerb, and monolith. A monolith is a large hollow rectangular or circular foundation sunk as an open caisson through various soil strata until reaching the desired founding level, at which point the bottom is plugged with concrete.
The document provides specifications for an apparatus used to measure the length change of hardened cement paste, mortar, and concrete. It describes the construction, dimensions, materials, and markings required for a length comparator, which uses a micrometer to measure the change in length of specimens against a reference bar. The length comparator consists of an adjustable frame that holds either a screw or dial micrometer and allows measurement of specimens of different lengths.
This document provides guidelines for designing drainage systems for earth and rockfill dams. It discusses key considerations like controlling pore pressures, internal erosion, and piping. The guidelines cover selecting appropriate drainage features based on the dam type and materials. Features discussed include inclined/vertical filters, horizontal filters, longitudinal and cross drains, transition zones, rock toes, and toe drains. Filter material criteria and design procedures are also outlined.
This document provides recommendations for welding cold-worked steel bars used for reinforced concrete construction according to Indian Standard IS 9417. It summarizes the key welding processes that can be used including flash butt welding, shielded metal arc welding, and gas pressure welding. For each process, it outlines preparation of the bars, selection of electrodes, welding procedures, and safety requirements. Diagrams are provided to illustrate edge preparation and sequences for multi-run butt welding and lap welding joints.
This document provides guidelines for lime concrete lining of canals. It discusses materials used for lime concrete lining such as lime, sand, coarse aggregate and water. It also discusses preparation of subgrade for different soil types including expansive soils, rock and earth. Compaction methods are provided for different soil types. The document also discusses laying of concrete lining and provides specifications for lime concrete mix such as minimum compressive and flexural strength.
This document provides guidelines for structural design of cut and cover concrete conduits meant for transporting water. It outlines various installation conditions for underground conduits and describes how to calculate design loads from backfill pressure, internal/external water pressure, and concentrated surface loads. Design loads include vertical and lateral pressure from backfill based on fill material properties, hydrostatic pressure from water surcharge, and dispersed point loads accounting for fill height and conduit geometry. The conduit is to be designed for the most unfavorable combination of these loads. Recommended fill material properties and methods for load and stress analysis are also provided.
This document provides guidelines for installing and observing cross arms to measure internal vertical movement in earth dams. It describes the components of the mechanical cross arm installation including the base extension, cross arm units, spacer sections, and top section. It provides details on installing each component as the dam is constructed in rock-free or rocky soils. Observation involves using a measuring torpedo attached to a steel tape or cable to take settlement readings from the installed cross arm system.
This document provides guidelines for instrumentation of concrete and masonry dams. It outlines obligatory and optional measurements for dams, including uplift pressure, seepage, temperature, and displacement. Obligatory measurements include uplift pressure, seepage, temperature inside the dam, and displacement measurements using plumb lines or other methods. Optional measurements that may provide additional insights include stress, strain, pore pressure, and seismicity measurements. The document describes different types of measurements in detail and how they can be used to monitor dam performance and safety over time.
This document provides guidelines for selecting measurement instruments and their locations for monitoring earth and rockfill dams. It describes various types of measurements needed, including pore pressure, movements, seepage, strains/stresses, and dynamic loads from earthquakes. Planning the instrumentation system is important to ensure required data is obtained during construction and the dam's lifetime. The document discusses different instruments for measuring vertical and horizontal movements, such as surface markers, cross-arm installations, hydraulic devices, magnetic probes, and inclinometers.
This document outlines specifications for concrete finishers used in construction. It specifies requirements for materials, size, construction, capacity, and performance. Key aspects include:
- Concrete finishers are used after spreaders to finish concrete laid by pavers.
- Materials must meet relevant Indian standards. Common sizes are 3-4.5m and 6-7.5m widths.
- Construction includes a steel frame, traction wheels, steering, adjustable screeds, vibrator attachment, drives, controls, and a diesel or petrol power unit.
- Performance requirements ensure the finisher can operate under different conditions to finish concrete slabs within specifications.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Pride Month Slides 2024 David Douglas School District
6955
1. IS : 6955.- 1973
Indian Standard
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
FOR EARTH AND ROCKFILL DAMS
( Fourth Reprint DECEMBER 1993 )
UDC 627’8 : 624’131’32
0 Copyright 1973
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
MANAK BHAVAN, 9 BAHADUR SHAH ZAFAR MARO
NBW DELHI 110002
Gr 6 October 1973
( Reaffirmed 1995 )
2. IS t 6955- 1973
IndianStandard
CODE OF PRACTICE FOR
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
FOR EARTH AND ROCKFILL DAMS
Subsurface Exploration Sectional Committee, BDC 49
Chairman
!&RI V. S. KRISHNASWAHY
Mem hers
CRIEB ENQINEER
Representing
Geological Survey of India, Lucknow
National Projects Construction Corporation Ltd,
New Delhi
SERI S. K. AQUARWAL(Alternate)
CHIEBENQINEER( IRRIQATION) Irrigation & Power Department, Government of
Rajasthan
SHRI K. N. DADINA In personal capacity (P-820, Bbck P, J&w A&ore,
Calcutta )
SHRI K. R. DATYE In personal capacity (.No. 2 Rehem Mansion, First
Floor, Colaba Causeway, Bombay 400001)
SHRI R. C. DESAI Rodio Foundation Engineering Ltd; and Hazarat
& Co, Bombay
SHRI V. R. DEWSEAR Irrigation & Power Department, Government of
Maharashtra
SHRI S. M. BHALERAO( Alternate)
DIRECTOR( CSMRS ) Central Water & Power Commission, New Delhi
SUPERINTENDINO ENQINEER,
CHENAB INvI~sTIQ.~TION
CIRCLE(Alternate )
SHRI H. DOSEI Christensen-Longyear ( India ) Ltd, Bombay
SHRI V. L. GORIANI( Alternate )
SHRI S. N. K. IPENQAR
SERI G. S. JAIN
Cementation.C? Ltd, Bombay
Cent;;lolorkydmg Research Institute ( CSXR ),
SHRI DEVENDRASHARYA( Allernate )
SHRI V. K. ‘KIRPALANI Voltas Limited, Bombay
Snar A. N. INDURKAR( &era&e )
SHRIJ. F. MISTRY Public Works Department, Government of Gujarat
SHRI H. C. PARNAR( Alternate)
SHRI K. S. S. MTJRTHY Ministry of Irrigation & Power, New Delhi
( Continued on page 2 )
@ Copyright1973
BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
This publication is protected under the Indian Copyri& & (XIV of 1957) and
reproduction in whole br in part by any means except with written permission of the
publisher &all be deemed to be an infringement of copyright under the said Act.
3. IS:6955-1973
(Continwdfromjags 1 )
Members
SREI B. K. PANTHAKY
SBRI M. S. DIWAN ( Altcrnote )
SERI C. GOIJALASWA~~YRao
REPBESENTATIVE
REPRESENTATIVE
SERI R. K. SABEARWAL
SHRI S. S. SAHI
SARI M. M. ANAND ( Alternate)
SRRI S. SATAPATHI
SECRETARY
DEPUTY SECRETARY ( Alternate )
SHRI H. D. SHARMA
SERI P. S. YOo
SHRI D. ASITEA SIMEA,
Director ( Civ Engg )
Represcn ting
Hindustan Construction Co Ltd, Bombay
Public Works & Electrical Department, Govern-
ment of Mysore
Engineering Research Laboratories, Hyderabad
Government of Himachal Pradesh
Larsen & Toubro Ltd, Bombay
Public Works Department, Government of Punjab
Irrigation & Power Department, Government of
Orissa
Central Board of Irrigation & Power, New Delhi
Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee
Irrigation Department, Government of Uttar
Pradesh
Director General, BIS ( Ex-ojicio Member )
Secretary
SHRI G. RAGMAN
Deputy Director ( Civ Engg), BIS
Subsurface Exploration For Earth and Rockiill Dams Pane! BDC 49 : P 10
Convener
SHRI P. s. Yoo Irrigation Department, Government of Uttar
Pradesh
Members
SHRI B. S. BHALLA Beas Design Organization, Nangal Township
&RI M. L. KAUSHAL ( Alternate)
SHRI D. N. BHAR~AVA Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee
DEPUTY DIRECTOR ( E & RDD ) Central Water & Power Commission, New Delhi
EXEOUTIVE ENUINEER, CHENAB
INVESTIGATIONCIRCLE ( Alternate )
DIRECTOR ( E & RDD ) Central Water & Power Commission, New Delhi
SUPE~INTENDXNCJENRINEER,
CHENAR INVESTIQATION
CIRCLE ( Alternate )
SHRI M. S. JAIN Geological Survey of India, Lucknow
SHRI B. N. HUKKU (Alternate)
SERI S. K. SHO~~E( Alternate )
4. Indian Standard
... ,:,.. :4:’.. ,,
I
I
CODE OF PRACTICEFOR
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
FOR EARTH AND ROCKFILL DAMS
0. FOREWORD
0.1 This Indian Standard was adopted by the Indian Standards Institution
on 3 April 1973, after the draft finalized by the Subsurface Exploration
Sectional Committee had been approved by the Civil Engineering Division
Council.
0.2 Earth dams have been constructed since the earliest of times. The
dams built in olden days, were generally of low to medium heights. With
increasing heights of dams and faster rates of construction there is greater
need for proper investigations and design based on the latest developments
in the fields of soil and rock mechanics. An important requisite for proper
design is adequate investigation. Subsurface explorations form an impor-
tant part of these rnvestigations.
0.3 In the forruulation of this standard due weightage has been given to
international co-ordination among lhe standards and practices prevailing in
different countries in addition to relating it to the practices in the field in
this country.
1. SCOPE
1.1 This standard gives guidance on the type, extent and details of
subsurface explorations needed -in connection with earth and rockfill dams.
It is not possible to lay down the required extent of exploration to cover
all types of cases. The standard provides guidelines for planning the
exploratory work through various stages.of the project development. These
recommendations may have to be modified for individual projects depend-
ing upon the site conditions and other conditions peculiar to each project
such as height and importance of the dam and the heterogeneity of
foundation formations.
1.2 The term subsurface exploration as used herein covers all types of
exploration connected with determination of the nature and extent of soil
andlor rock below the natural ground surface at/or near the dam site.
3
*
5. IS : 6955 - 1973
1.3 This code does not however cover the types and methods of explora-
tion for materials of construction for earth and rockfill dams such as soil
and rock and material for riprap protection. These will be covered by a
separate code on subsurface exploration for construction materials.
2. GENERAL CONDITIONS
2.1 The type and extent of exploration should be commensurate with the
size and importance of the project and will depend upon the size of the
dam and the type of foundation. These should be neither too little, result-
ing in inadequate data, nor too much resulting in excessive cost and time
for completion.
2.2 Subsurface explorations in connection with an earth and/or rockfill
dam would cover a specified area around the dam site and will be carried
to a specified depth. A complete programme of exploration should be able
to give information regarding the following points:
a) Types of different soil and rock masses that exist in the foundation
and abutments.
b) The location, sequence, thickness and area1 extent of each soil/
rock stratum, including a description and classification of the
soils and their structure, stratification in the undisturbed state,
significant geological or other structural features, such as buried
channels, seams, joints, fissures, and mineral and chemical
constituents.
c) The depth to and type of bedrock as well as the location, sequ-
ence, thickness, area1 extent, attitude, depth of weathering,
soundness, and description of rock in each rock stratum within
the depth of exploration.
d) The characteristics of the ground water, including whether the
water table is perched or normal, direction of Aow of ground
water, depth of and pressure in artesian zones, and quantity of
dissolved salts present in the ground water.
e) Engineering and index properties of the over burden and physical
characteristics of rocks.
3. STAGES OF EXPLORATION
3.1 The extent of foundation exploration required for a dam of given
size varies greatly from site to site depending on the subsurface conditions
and cannot be adequately visualized in advance. The exploration generally
proceeds in stages, the details af each stage growing out of the one before.
It normally follows a learn-as-you-go procedure in which characteristics
4
6. IS f6955- 1973
of the subsurface soils and conditions are developed in progressively greater.
detail as the exploration proceeds.
3.2 Explorations can be generally sub-divided into four stages as in 3.2.1
to 3.2.4.
3.2.1 Reconnaissance Stage- This should comprise of selection of suitable
alternative sites on the basis of regional and local geology, topographic
expression and anticipated depth to bed rock and impermeable strata.
This will consist of photo-geological interpretation and a general field
inspection by a qualified engineering geologist and engineer for an assess-
ment of the overall aspects of the geology of the site and foundation
conditions. On the basis of information gathered at this stage an evaluation
is made about the depth and characteristics of foundation strata which
would serve as a basis for initial planning of the programmes of field
work that will broaden or add to the existing knowledge of the site
conditions and the methods and scope of investigations and testing.
3.2.2Preliminary Stage
3.2.2.1 Objectives and types and methods of exploration- During this stage
data formulation of the project would be collected. The coverage of
exploration should be adequate for examination of the feasibility which
includes estimation of the cost and evaluation. of the benefits. This stage
would also include studies for preliminary choice of the alignment as well
as the height of the dam. This stage of exploration includes the following
types and methods :
a>
b)
4
4
4
f)
Exploration by test pits, trenches, drifts and shafts;
Exploration by geo-physical methods;
Exploration by drilling using coring and non-coring methods or
by other boring methods;
Determination of the depth to water table and evaluation of field
permeability; observation of temperature, pressure and discharge
of springs met at the surface or in exploratory borings, trenches,
etc;
Field penetration and field density tests in overburden; and
Laboratory tests on representative samples and undisturbed
samples for the determination of engineering and index properties
of the overburden material.
3.2.2.2 Choice of methods - Normally for dams up to 30 m height
exploration by trial pits, trenches and drill or auger holes would be
sufficient. Some field tests on permeability and penetration resistance would
also be necessary. For dams up to 100 m in addition drifts and shafts may
5
7. E -___- --..“.--_ -._ ._~.____ ~~_._...___
IS : 6955 - 1973
be required depending upon the geological complexity of the site. For
dams higher than 100 m geo-physical methods may be required in addition
to drifts and shafts.
3.2.2.3 Spacing - For portions of the dam less than 10 m in height
exploration by pits at a spacing of 250 to 300 m depending upon the
nature of the foundation material may be necessary. For lengths of the
dam where section is above 10 m the spacing may be l/lOth of the length
of the portion with particular attention being given for adequate coverage
to deeper sections. In between drill hole locations, trial pits or auger holes
would be sufficient.
3.2.2.4 Location - Exploratory holes, pits and auger holes may be
located along the axis of the dam for dam up to 100 m height. For dams
greater than 100 m, however, additional line of holes may be found
necessary depending on geological conditions.
3.2.2.5 Depth of exploration -In general, the depth up to which
explorations should be made depends upon the following factors:
a>Depth of overburden, depth up to which weathering of bed rock
has progressed. Exploration should be carried to a depth to
locate all weak and compressible or otherwise undesirable layers
in the foundation, such as markedly pervious layers.
b) At the preliminary investigation stage the depth would be gene-
rally guided by the permeability characteristics of the strata. It
may be sufficient to explore up to a depth of i or 4 of the
hydraulic head at the location of the dam in groutable coreable
rock if found at shallow depths of less than $- to $ of the
hydraulic head. If the depth to rock is larger than + to 4 the
hydraulic head, one or two drill holes may be taken down 5 to
10 m into the in situ rock.
3.2.3 Detailed ( Pre-construction ) Investigations Stage
3.2.3.1 In this stage of investigation all data required for detailed
design and preparation of construction drawings should be collected.
Close co-ordination is essential between the work of the organizations for
exploration, geology and design. The design engineer and the geologist
should he closely associated with the exploration and they should be
required to prepare an outline of the scope and extent of exploration.
While the details would be left to those incharge of exploration, the
designer and the geologist should participate in the choice of the method
of investigation and the equipment so that they can appreciate the
limitations of the data obtained through field work.
6
8. 1s : 6%%5- 1973
3.2.3.2 Investigations at this stage would comprise the following:
a) Intensive exploration by additional drilling and pitting ( trenches
and shafts where found necessary) of the foundation to determine
spatial distribution and characteristics of different types of
foundation materials in relation to specific design features;
b) Use of geophysical methods to define in greater detail the sub-
surface conditions, such as the depth to bed rock or depth to
water table in specific sections of the dam base. During this stage
use of bore hoie geophysical methods, such as electric logging as
and when required may be found advantageous to define particular
characteristics of over burden and bed rock;
c) Defining of geohydraIogica1 characteristics of the foundat’ons
and its environments through pumping in or pumping out tests
as dictated by site conditions.
d) Ascertaining the groutability of foundations through trial grouting
of specified reaches; and
e) Special field tests like blasting tests and field shear tests where
found necessary.
3.2.3.3 Depth and sfiacing oJ holes
a) For dams less than 30 m in height two additional lines of holes ( in
addition to those indicated in 3.2.1 ) as dictated by design consi-
derations may be necessary. The holes should be suitably
staggered to provide information at 30 m intervals. The depth
of I/3 of these holes may be kept equal to the hydraulic head of
the dam.
b) For dams 30 to 100 m in height two additional rows of holes
would be required. Holes may be suitably located to give
information at 15 to 30 m intervals depending upon the foundation
conditions and the length of the dam. Half the number of holes
should be taken to depths equal to the hydraulic head and the
remaining to half the hydraulic head or to prove a continuous
impervious soil or rock or such strata that can be rendered
impervious by treatment. The depths to which exploration
should be continued in the impervious medium or medium that
can be rendered impervious by treatment should be decided on
the basis of design considerations.
c) For dams above 100 m in height three lines of holes should be
drilled at locations dictated by design considerations. The depth
of these holes should be equal to the hydraulic head. In addition,
trenches to explore the foundation sequence in the river bed
section and for collection of undisturbed samples may be required.
7
9. IS : 6955- 1973
The holes may be located to give information at 13 to 30 m
intervals. In addition drifts in abutments may be required, if
special geological conditions warrant.
3.2.4 Conslruction Stage - Construction stage exploration should aim at
making available data generally for the evaluation of specific foundation
features and preparation of foundation grade maps to guide foundation
preparation and treatment.
4. GENERAL OBSERVATION ON ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS
AND RELATIVE SUITABILITY OF VARIOUS METHODS OF
EXPLORATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO SPECIFIC OBJEC-
TIVES
4.1 Use of Geophysical Methods for Determination of the Depth
of Overburden- Results of seismic refraction studies can indicate the
depth of overburden only if there exists a sharp contrast in the properties
of the overburden and the rock. It is necessary to ascertain the validity
of the seismic refraction methods by drilling a few bore holes and compa-
ring the results of core drilling and sampling with the results ,of seismic
refraction survey.
4.2 Determination iof Permeability and Porosity Characteristics
with Reference to Seepage Control
4.2.1 For design of seepage control measures it is often necessary to
ascertain the depth of an extensive impervious stratum. Depth of the
impervious stratum indicated in a few bore holes could be misleading
unless the continuity of the stratum is confirmed by plotting the subsoil
profiles and existence of such a continuous stratum can be justified by the
local geological conditions.
4.2.2 Grain size distribution data are of extremely limited value for
determination of the in situ permeability. The field permeability is
determined by the continuity or otherwise of the more pervious lenses and
pockets rather than the average permeability of samples collected from
various bore holes. The in situ structure may have a radical influence on
the permeability and the geological origin is also a very important factor.
When lenses and Rockets are known to exist bore hole permeability tests
shall supplement grain size data and large scale pumping tests are neces-
sary to ascertain the quantitative significance of extent of lenses of
pervious material with regard to field permeability.
4.2.3 The existence of paths of preferential (concentrated ) seepage,
such as faults, shear zones and solution channels or pockets of open gravel
is very important for ascertaining the extent of erosion hazard. Geological
factors influencing the existence of such conditions shall be studied care-
fully for planning of explorations and drilling. Sampling operations and
core drnling shall be directed specifically towards detection of such
10. IS : 6955 - 1973
features. Observations on open trenches and pits is essentialwhen previous
experience of the local conditions is not sufficient to justify reliance on
interpretation of data from hole sampling and field tests.
4.3 Determination of the Compressibility Characteristics of
Sandy Strata and their Relative Density - The compressibility and
relative density can best be judged by conducting static and dynamic
penetration tests. The indication of penetration tests are influenced by the
overburden pressure. The presence of cohesive pockets can completely
vitiate the interpretation of the penetration tests. It is? therefore,
desirable to conduct static penetration tests in conjunction with sampling
operations. Standard penetration test has the advantage that it permits
representative sampling along with dynamic testing. It is extremely
difficult in practice to determine the void ratio in situ of sandy soils by
sampling as disturbance always occurs in sampling of non-cohesive soils.
4.4 Determination of Shear Strength and Consolidation Properties
of Cohesive Strata
4.4.1 In situ properties are very much influenced by the micro and macro
structure of the clay, for example existence of fissures, metastable grain
structure, presence of varves. The reliability of sampling is dependent on
the sCnsitivity of the clay and sampling technique. Often it may be
desirable to determine the in ~ifu strength by field tests, such as vane shear
strength. Parameters such as liquidity index provide valuable indications
of the strength characteristics or compressibility.
4.4.2 An important consideration governing the consolidation behaviour
of clay is the ratio of the horizontal and vertical coefficients of consolida-
tion. Sampling from a few bore holes may fail to reveal the existence of
thin layers of sandy or silty material and their continuity. Past experience
of investigations of soils with similar depositional history may be utiIized
for judging the ratio of vertical and horizontal coefficients of consolidation.
In the absence of past experience a large scale load test with piezometer
observations may be essential. It may not be advisable to rely exclusively
on the results of tests on bore hole samples, no matter how closely are the
bore holes located or how carefully sampling operation was carried out.
4.4.2.1 In residual soils the structure of the parent rock from which
the soil is derived may influence the strength, permeability and consolida-
tion characteristics of the soil. It may, therefore, be necessary to study the
structure of the parent rock and to ascertain by observations in trenches
and pits how far the original structure of rock is retained by the soil.
5. METHODS OF EXPLORATION
5.1 The following categories of methods may be used for subsurface
exploration for earth and rockfill dams:
a) Geophysical,
b) Pits and trenches,
9
11. IS : 6955 - 1973
4
4
4
5.1.1
Borings ( auger boring and core drilling ),
Shafts and drifts, and
Field tests in situ.
Geophysical explorations enable gaining of knowledge of pro-
perties of subsurface strata by inference from measured rates of transmiss-
ion of electric current or seismic waves. In situ tests enable direct measure-
ment of properties in the ground. The rest are means of collection of
samples for visual examination and for performance of laboratory tests
thereon.
6. GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS
6.1 Geophysical’ methods can under appropriate conditions be used to
obtain in relatively very short time, information regarding the nature of
the various strata and their position and depths of change. However, since
,it is not a direct measurement, borings have to be made for correlation in
order to interpret correctly the geophysical data.
6.2 The geophysical methods are not adequate in themselves as tools for
subsurface investigation. Whereas they permit a fast coverage of the entire
area at low cost, and the process is not hampered by presence of boulders,
etc, which generally produce obstruction in boring, the correct interpreta-
tion of geophysical observations is difficult, particularly in areas of irregular
formations and irregular depths of strata and steep topography. It is,
therefore, imperative that interpretation from geophysical work be con-
firmed by borings.
6.3 Geophysical investigations should always be carried out with proper
equipment by properly trained and .experienced investigators, because
accuracy in observations and interpretation of data is very essential for
arriving at reliable conclusions. An ’ Indian Standard code of practice for
subsurface investigation by geophysical method’ is under preparation.
6.4 The principle methods applicable in case of explorations for dams are:
a) refraction seismic, and
b) electrical resistivity.
6.4.1 Refraction Seismic Method - Earth vibrations set up artificially by
explosions form the basis of this method. The earth waves travel in all
directions through the ground and are refracted or reflected back to the
surface by lower rock formations through which they travel with a different
velocity than through the overburden. The time of arrival of these waves
at any point on the surface of the ground is recorded by a special seis-
mograph and the time of travel from the explosion point to the pick-up
10
12. IS t 6955 - 1973
point is thus determined. This information enables deductions to be drawn
regarding nature and depth of underlying formations.
6.4.1.1 This method may be used to determine the depth to bedrock,
the dip in special cases and other data regarding the underlying rock
formations which are useful for designing foundations for dams, such as
dynamic modulus from shear wave velocity and vibration characteristics
of the foundation. These studies may be required in special cases of weak
rocks and high dams.
6.4.2 Electrical Resistivity Method - This generally uses four electrodes at
equal distances along a straight line. An electric current is passed between
the outer two electrodes and is precisely measured by a milliammet,er. The
potential difference between the inner two electrodes is measured using
null point type of circuit. From the data obtained the electrical resistivity
is calculated.
6.4.2.1 The value of apparent resistivity changes at each change of
strata and since in general the distance between the electrodes is equal to
depth of layer being measured, it is by this method possible to measure
specific resistance to different depths by varying the electrode spacing.
With some knowledge of the local geology and of the typical values for
different strata, it is possible to determine the thickness and depth of the
different strata by use of one or more methods of interpretation, namely
mathematical analysis, empirical methods, inter-correlation with curves
and correlation with model experiments. Applied to dams, this method
can be employed for locating bedrock and water table.
7. EXPLORATION BY PITS
7.1 Deep trial .pits (see IS: 4453-1967*) may be used to investigate open
fissures, or to explore zones of weak rocks which would break up in the
core barrel and are incapable of being recovered in tact. In case of dams,
open pits are useful for investigating the nature of overburden in founda-
tion area.
7.2 At the surface the excavated material shall be placed in an orderly
manner around the pit and marked stakes shall be driven to indicate
depth of pit from which the material came, in order to facilitate logging
and sampling.
7.3 The level of the water table and the level, location and rate of seepage
flow in the test pit should be recorded date-wise.
8. EXPLORATION BY TRENCHES
8.1 Exploration by trenches ( see IS : 4453-1967* ) is useful in providing a
continuous explosure of the ground along a given line or sections. ‘They
*Code of practice for exploration by pits, trenchu, drifts and shafts.
11
13. IS: 69% - 1973
are best suited for shallow explorations ( 3 to 4.5 m ) on moderately steep
slopes, for example abutment of dams.
8.2 The profile exposed by these trenches may represent the entire depth
of significant strata in an abutment of a dam. However, their shallow
depth may limit explorations to the upper weathered zone of foundations.
8.2.1 Trenching permits visual inspection of the soil strata which
facilitates logging of the profile and selection of samples. It also aids in
obtaining large undisturbed samples for testing. Trenches in sloping
ground have the advantage of being self-draining.
8.3 The level of the water table and the level, location and the rate of
seepage if met with should be recorded date-wise.
8.4 The length and spacing will be determined on the basis of height and
length of dam and geological complexities.
9. EXPLORATION BY BORINGS
9.1 Borings provide the simplest method of subsurface investigation and
sampling. They may be used to indicate the subsurface stratum and to
collect samples from each of the strata.
9.2 Borings may be made by several methods depending upon the nature
of subsoil strata as detailed below:
For Soils
i) Post hole auger
For Rocks
i) Percussion boring
(JCCIS: 1892-1962*).
ii) Shell and auger boring ii) Rotary drilling ($8~IS : 1892-
( see IS : 1892-1962* ) 1962*):
a) Mud-rotary drilling
b) Core drilling
( seeIS : 6926~1973t)
c) Short drilling
(see IS: 1892.1962*)
iii) Wash boring ( SIGIS : 1892-
1962* )
iv) Rotary drilling (scc IS : 1892.
1962*)
*Codeof practice for site investigations for foundations.
tCode of practice for diamond core drilling for rite investigation for river valley
projects.
12
14. 16 t 6933 - 1973
9.3 Auger Boring
9.3.1 Post Hole Auger - Hand-operated post-hole augers 10 to 30 cm in
diameter can be used for exploration up to about 6 m. However, with
the aid of the tripod, holes up to 25 m depth can be excavated. Depth of
auger investigations are limited by ground water table and by the amount
and maximum size of gravel, cobbles and boulders as compared to size of
equipment used.
9.3.1.1 Mechanically operated augers are also available and are
particularly suitable where a large number of holes are to be made, or in
gravelly soils. Machine driven augers are of three types and are given
below:
a) Helical augers 75 mm to 403 mm in dia
b) Disc augers Up to 1050 mm in dia
c) Bucket augers Up to 1200 mm in dia
9.3.1.2 An auger boring is made by turning the auger the desired
distance into the soil, withdrawing it and removing the soil for examina-
tion and sampling. The auger is inserted in the hole again and the process
is repeated. Holes are usually bored without addition of water in loose,
moderately cohesive moist soil. But in hard dry soils or cohesionless sands
the introduction of a small amount of water into the whole will very much
facilitate the drilling and sample extraction.
9.3.2 Shell and Auger Borings - Pipe casing or shell is required in un-
stable soil in which the bore hole collapses, and especially where the
boring is extended below the ground water level. The inside diameter of
the casing should be slightly larger than the diameter of the auger used.
Borings up to 200 mm dia and 25 m depth can be done with manual
operation. Power winch is required for deeper borings. The casing is
driven to a uepth not greater than the top of the next sample and is
cleaned out by means of the auger.
9.4 Gore Drilling
9.4.1 Core drilling should be done in accordance with IS : 6926-1973*
(see also IS : 4078-1967t and IS : 4464-1967x ).
9.4.2 The accuracy and dependability of the records furnished by
diamond drilling depend largely upon the size of the core in relation to
the kind of material drilled, the percentage of core recovery, the behaviour
*Code of practice for diamond core drilling for site investigationfor river valley
projects.
tCodc of practice for indexingandstorageof drill cores.
iCode of practice for presentation sf drilling information and core description in
foundationinvestigation.
13
15. fS t 6955 - 1973
during drilling and the experience ot the drill crew. Largest practicable
diameter core should be obtained. Recovery of core is much more
important than rapid progress in drilling the hole. When drilling in soft
materials, the water circulation should be reduced or stopped entirely and
the core recovered ’ dry ‘.
9.4.3 Detailed history of mechanical operation of drilling including
observations on the loss of return water and its reappearance, difficulties
encountered and time taken in -these difficult areas and in areas of core
loss should be included in the drilling feport.
9.4.4 Percolation tests under speciied pressures should be done in drill
holes using packers, as the drilling progresses.
9.4.5 Completed holes should be capped to preserve them for use in
ground water level observations or as grout holes or for re-entry if it is
later found desirable to deepen the hole.
10.EXPLORATION BY DRIFTS
10.1 Drifts or tunnels ( w IS : 4453-1967* ) are normally employed to
explore at depth the continuity or character of subsurface formations.
They are most frequently used for the investigation of fault or shear zone,
buried channels and suspected places of weakness in dam foundation,
abutments and beneath steep slopes or back of cliff like faces to deter-
mine the extent of weathering, slump ione and bed rock configuration in
areas of fossil valleys.
10.1.1They are also used for taking undisturbed samples of rock for
tests in the laboratory and for performing in S&J tests like the plate bearing
test and flat jack tests to determine the modules of elasticity and. deforma-
tion of rock formations and shear, etc, required to study the properties of
the rock.
10.2 Logging and sampling of exploratory drift should proceed concur-
rently with excavation operation. They should be mapped giving direction
of dip, fauh zones, shear zones and seams, etc, as detailed in IS : 4453-
1967*.
10.3 Level, location and piezometric heads of seepage flows if any occur
should be recorded date-wise.
11. EXPLORATION BY SHAFTS
11.1 Shafts ( see IS : 4453-1967* ) are vertical holes and are normally
employed to reach a particular point at a great depth, either to extend the
- .~.-____-.__.-.__..
*Code of practice for explorationby pits, trenches,driftsand shafts.
14
16. IS I 6955 - 1973
exploration below river bed by means of drifts for dam foundation or for
explorating locations of structures, such as gates, underground diversion
tunnels, penstocks, etc. They also provide a continuous exposures of the
ground along the direction of shaft.
12. FIELD TESTS
12.1 Field tests ( in situ ) are those in which the material is tested without
actual removal of the material from its existing position. Those applicable
to earth and rock-fill dams are the following:
a) Strength tests:
1) Deep penetration tests, and
2) Shear tests.
b) Measurement of density of foundation material.
c) Permeability tests.
d) Blasting tests.
12.1.1 The necessity and the number of each type of test to be conduct-
ed depend on the foundation material and its degree of variability.
12.2 Strength Tests
,12.2.1 Deep Penetration Tests
12.2.1.1 These tests [see IS:2131-1963*, IS:4968 (Part I)-1968?,
IS : 4968 (Part II)-1968f and IS: 4968 (Part III )-I9715 ] consist of
measuring the resistance to penetration under static or dynamic loading of
different shaped tools. The tests are empirical and have been developed
from experience. They should be performed carefully in the prescribed
manner.
12.2.1.2 Static and dynamic penetration tests in bore holes or direct
provide a simple means of comparing the results of different bore hoIes on
the same site and for obtaining an indication of the bearing value of the
soils, and of the state of densification of non-cohesive soils. Correlation
between number of blows obtained in standard ( dynamic) penetration
tests ( sea IS : 2131-l 963* ) and between penetration resistance in static
penetration test with bearing capacity and relative density of non-cohesive
soils are given in several publications ( see also IS: 6403-1971 ). While
*Methods for standard penetration test for soils.
tMethod for subsurface sounding for soils : Part I Dynamic method using 50 mm
cone without bentonite slurry.
SMethod for subsurface sounding for soils : Part II Dynamic method using cone and
bentonite slurry.
§Method for subsurface sounding for soils : Part k1 Method using static cone penetra-
tion test.
IjCode of practice for determination of allowable bearing pressure on shallow
foundations.
15
17. IS t 6955 - 1973
these can be used as guides, a better method would be to do actual calibra-
tion of the apparatus, or at least use more than one method for comparison.
12.2.1.3 Where dams are to be founded on sandy deposits, these tests
are the only suitable methods for determining in situ densities at depth,
which information is very vital for assessment of settlements, and of poten-
tialities of liquifaction under earthquakes.
12.2.1.4 The number of tests should be fairly large to cover the entire
critical foundation area.
12.2.2 Shear Tests
12.2.2.1 Vuns shear tests-These tests ( see IS : 4434-1967*) measure
the in situ strength of cohesive soils Nhich are too soft or sensitive for
sampling.
12.2.2.2 Large shear tests-These tests may be necessary urder
special foundation conditions when large specimens of the foundation
material are to be tested for better stimulation of field conditions and
representation of the material which is not possible under laboratory tests.
Special loading and observation set up are required in such tests on the
same principles as those for laboratory tests.
12.3 Permeability Tests
12.3.1 Permeability of a soil is the property which governs the rate at
which water can flow through unit area under unit hydraulic gradient. A
knowledge of permeability of the soil is necessary in estimating seepage
through the foundation and in determining any foundation treatment that
may be needed.
12.3.2 Permeability is usually determined by in situ pumping in and
pumping out tests [see IS : 5529 ( Part I )-1969t and IS : 5529 (Part II )-
1973$.] in wells and may also be needed in preconstruction stage investi-
gations. The tests are of great importance in case of earth dams,
particularly where the foundation is not sufficiently impervious, and hence
they should be performed in sufficient number covering the entire area.
In rock foundations also water loss tests are done in sufficient number of
exploratory drill holes.
12.4 Measurement of Density of Foundation Material
12.4.1 In situ density of foundation material is used in stability analysis.
It also affords information on the state of compaction and to decide
whether further compaction is needed.
*Code of ,practicefor in situ vane shear test for soils.
tCode of practice for in situ permeability tests : Parr I Tests in overburden.
$Code of practice for in situ permeability tests : Part II Test in bedrock.
16
18. IS : 6955- 1973
12.4.2 The sand density method is used to determine the in-place
density by excavating a hole from a horizontal surface, weighing the
material excavated and determining the volume of the hole by filling it
with calibrated sand [see IS : 2720 ( Part XXVIII )-1966*]. Other
methods for the determination of in situ density are the core cutter method
[ IS : 2720 (Part XXIX )-1966t ] and the rubber balloon method [ IS :
2720 (Part XXXIV)-1971$,]. The water content [see IS : 2720 (Part II)-
19695 ] of the soil at the place of determination of in situ density is needed
to calculate the dry density of the soil.
12.4.3 This test is applicable to very shallow depths only, or to the
depths of pits and trenches, where the tests are performed at their bottoms.
The density determination at depth should be made from undisturbed
samples obtained from depths, or by deep penetration tests in non-cohesive
soils. In cases of dams, surface tests have hardly any significance; hence
this may be performed in pits and trenches.
12.5 Blasting Test
12.5.1 Blasting test is often performed in foundations of saturated loose
non-cohesive soils mainly for assessment of the likely chances of liquifac-
tion and settlement in the event of earthquake, and also as prototype test
for studying the efficacy of blasting as means of compaction of non-cohesive
soils, where compaction is considered necessary or desirable.
12.52 The test consists in blasting charges of different strength and at
different depths and measuring induced accelerations, pore pressure rise
and settlements or heave at different points. No standards can be laid
down for the detailed procedure and strengths and depths of charge, and
these factors have to be decided taking into consideration the past work
on the subject and characteristics of the particular site and the proposed
structure. This is a special investigation which may not be needed in all
cases.
13. SAMPLING
13.1 The methods employed for enabling collection of samples for visual
examination and for performance of laboratory tests thereon have already
been described in 8 to 12.
*Methods of test for soils: Part XXVIII Determination of dry density of soils in-
place by the sand replacement method.
iMethods of test for soils : Part XXIX Determination of dry density of soils in-place
by the core cutter method.
3Methods of test for soils : Part XXXIV Determination of density of soils in-place by
the rubber balloon method.
$Methods of test for soils : Part II Determination of moisture content (jirst revision ).
17
19. IS : 69% - 1973
13.2 To take undisturbed samples from bore holes, properly designed:
sampling tools shall be used. These differ for cohesive and non-cohesive
soils and for rocks. Special samplers like piston samplers and/or the freez-
ing or grouting techniques may have to be employed in cases where
samples are to be collected from cohcsionless sand which cannot be
sampled by ordinary equipment and methods, particuk~rly those existing
below ground water table.
13.3 Sufficient quantity of representative undisturbed samples for
foundation exploration shail be collected for carrying out the necessary
tests.
13.4 While boring small diameter bore holes in foundation area of dams,
the total material recovered as core should be collected and stored in core
boxes ( see IS : 4078-1967* ). Samples of soil and rock should be collected
and preserved in sealed pint jars to preserve their natural water content.
Samples should be representative of the material as it is found in the area.
13.5 In the exploration of the materials in foundations, the excavation
from which are in substantial quantities and may be used in embankment
construction, samples should be collected representative of each stratum in
a volume sufficient to provide about 35 kg of material passing a 4’75-mm
IS Sieve. Material smaller than 75 mm should not be removed from this
sample.
13.6 Samples collected in the process of routine explorations are not as a
rule satisfactory for determination of properties of soii or rock enmasse in
its natural condition. For this purpose, samples should be collected of
material unaffected by seasonal climatic influence from large diameter
bore-holes ( 100 to 150 mm diameter minimum ) or from the bottom of
open pits.
13.6.1 Bore hole samples should be 30 to 60 cm long and open pit
samples 25 to 30 cm cubes. Every effort should be made to preserve such
samples as nearly in their natural condition as possible.
14. EXAMINATION AND TESTING OF SAMPLES
14.1 The samples of soils and rocks collected as described in 12.1 to 12.5
should be examined and tested in the laboratory for determining their
engineering properties. The various tests that are usually necessary are
given in 14.2 to 14.5.
14.2 Tests for Soils
14.2.1 Visual and Manual Examination- This would give general des-
cription of the soil or rock in terms of colour, consistency, structure,
lithological type, etc, to help in general classification of the material.
‘Code of practice for indexing and.storage of drill cores.
18
20. IS t 6955-1973
14.2.2 JVatural Moisture Content -It helps in assessment of foundation
pore pressures [ ~68IS : 2720 ( Part II )-1969* 1.
14.2.3 Liquid and Plastic Limits - Liquid and plastic limits are sem-
quantitative measures of water absorption qualities of clay. They give an
indication of the cohesiveness of the soils, and are also useful in soil classifi-
cation [see IS : 2720 ( Part V)-1970t].
14.2.4 SjeciJc Gravily - Specific gravity indicates a basic characteristic
of the soil and is useful in calculating several of the soil parameters [ SM
IS : 2720 ( Part III )-19648 1.
14.2.5 Particle Size Distribution -A knowledge of particle size distribution
is of use for soil classification in understanding the foundation features,
such as density, permeability and susceptibility to liquifaction [see
IS : 2720 ( Part IV )-1965s ].
14.2.6 Bulk Density - In case of foundations, it is essential for computing
stability.
14.2.7 PermeabiliQ -A knowledge of permeability of different founda-
tion strata is essential for estimating general seepage loss, piping danger
and grouting requirements. It is also essential for the design of under
seepage control measures. Ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability can
indicate the degree of homogenuity and isotropy of the granular foundation
material.
14.2.8 Consolidation Characteristics - These are required for estimating
the magnitude and rate of settlement due to consolidation of soil and for
assessment of pore pressure development during construction. One dimen-
sional consolidation test [see IS:2720 (Part XV)-1965111 is also used for
determining the additional consolidation which occurs. in a soil, placed
at a particular moisture content when it gets saturated. A series of such
tests et different moisture contents helps determine the appropriate plact-
ment moisture percentage. Pore pressure development can be calculated
from data of one dimensional test, or directly by use of three dimensional
consolidation test.
14.2.9 Swelling Trsts -Swelling tests are useful for clays particularly
those of montmorihonite family to assess likely pressures the clay would
*Methods of test for soils : Part II Determination of moisture content (Jirztrevision ).
tMethods of test for soils: Part V Determination of liquid and plastic limits (.first-_
re&hJ ).
SMethods of test for soils : Part III Determination of specific gravity.
$Methods of test for soils : Part IV Grain size analysis.
llblethods of test fur soils : Part XV Determination of consolidation properties.
19
21. ISt6955 - 1973
exert on saturation. These tests should be conducted at the lowest moisture
content that may be obtained in the field.
14.2.10 Strength Charocterislics -Strength characteristics of soil may be
determined by unconfined compression test [see IS : 2720 (Part X)-1964*],
direct shear test [see IS: 2720 (Part XIII)-1972t] and triaxial shear test.
Unconfined compression test is generally suitable for rock samples for
determination of foundation strength. Strength characteristics of undisturb-
ed soil samples from foundations are usually determined by triaxial shear
test or direct shear test (different types being used for different conditions
of stability analysis ).
14.2.11 Combaction Test - May be required for comparison with in situ
densities [see IS: 2720 (Part VII)-1965$].
14.2.12 Densib Index (Relative Density) - For cohesionless soil to assess
the degree of compaction of the soil in situ [ see IS: 2720 (PartXIV)-1968$].
14.2.13 Mineralogical Composition - By differential and X-ray difraction
studies. May be required for expensive soils combined with low height
dams.
14.2.14 Chemical Analysis - Chemical tests may be performed on one
or two typical soil samples to determine soluble salt content [see IS : 2720
( PartXXI)-1965111, calcium carbonate content [see IS : 2720 ( Part XXIII )-
19667 ] and organic matter content [see IS : 2720 ( Part XXII )-1972**].
14.3 Tests for Rock
14.3.1 Petrographic Study -Petrographic study of the rock done by
petrographer helps to evaluate the stability of the constituent minerals
under conditions of prolonged saturation of the foundation material (see
IS : 1123-1957-j-T 1. These may be required in special cases.
14.3.2 Shear Strength Tests- Shear strength tests may be required in
the case of weak and layered rock foundations.
14.3.3 Spacijc Gravip and Porosity- This would indicate the state of
denseness of the rock (see IS : 1122-1957$$ ).
--
*Methods of test for soils: Part X Determination of unconfined compressive strength.
tMethods of test for soils : Part XIII Direct shear test (first reuision).
SMethods of test for soils: Part VII Determination of moisture content-dry density
relation using light compaction.
BMethods of test for soils : Part XIV Determination of density index ( relative density )
of khesionless soils.
. .
j/Methods of test for soils : Part XXI Determination of total soluble solidr.
TMethods of test for soils : Part XXIII Determination of calcium carbonate.
**Methods of tebt for soils : Part XXII Determination of organic matter (Jirsi reuision).
TtMethod for petrographical examination of natural building stones.
$$Method for determination of specific gravity and porosity of natural building stones.
20
22. . IS : 6955- 1973
14.3.4 Water Absorption -This test determines the capacity of rock for
absorbing water ( see IS : 1124-1957 *).
14.4 Chemical Analysis- Chemical tests may be performed on one or
two typical rock samples to determine, soluble salt content, calcium
carbonate content and organic matter content.
14.5 Water Analysis - Chemical analysis of river water and ground
water including determination of PH value (see IS: 3025-1964t) may be
done to assess the effects of water, such as corrosion, on underground, or
other hydromechanical installations and leaching of salts from the founda-
tion strata or deposition of salts from the percolating water underground.
15. RECORDING AND REPORTING OF DATA
15.1 General - Information collected from the explorations mentioned
should be recorded and presented in a concise and systematic manner,
suitable for convenient use, in the form of maps, subsurface sections, etc.
The locations of sections and points of exploration should be clearly
indicated on a map. Pits, trenches, drifts, shafts, different types of bore
holes, etc, should be indicated on location maps using suitable symbols
in accordance with the ‘ Indian Standard symbols and abbreviations for
use in geological maps, sections and subsurface exploratory logs ’ ( under
@@aration ) .
15.1.1 The scales used for maps should be in accordance with
IS: 6065 (Part I)-1971$.
15.2 Logging of Pits, Trenches and Holes
153.1 Location - Every pit, trench and hole should be defiiiitely located
on a map by being tied to a co-ordinate grid system. The top elevations
should be recorded, as also the inclination of the inclined holes.
15.2.2 Identijcation - The holes, pits, etc, should all be numbered
normally in the order in which they are drilled and with suitable symbols
as given in the ‘Indian Standard symbols and abbreviations for use
in geological maps, sections and subsurface exploratory logs’ (tinder
jwe~aration ).
15.2.3 Logs - A standard and exhaustive log form should be used
giving as much information as possible ( see IS : 4453-1967s) and ( IS :
4464-196711).
-.
‘Methods of test for water absorption of natural building stones.
*Method of sampling and test ( physical and chemical ) for water used in industry.
$Recommendations for the preparation of geological and geotechnical maps for river
valley projetcs : Part I Scales.
ICode of practice for exploration by pits, trenches, drifts and shafts.
(ICode of practice for presentation of drilling Information and core description in
foundation investigation.
21
23. if3: 6955 - 1973
15.2.4 Description of Soils - The soils should be described in the logs
and in the records according to IS : 1498-1970*.
152.5 Descriptionof Rock Cores- The description of the rock core should
include its typical name followed by data on its lithologic and structural
features, physical conditions, and any special geologic, mineralogic, or
physical features pertinent to interpretation of the subsurface conditions
(seeIS :4464-1967-i_).
15.3 Subsurface Sections - Sections showing subsurface conditions
believed to exist should be prepared. The locations of the sections should
be selected in a manner such that the information is presented in the best
possible manner. With different information like type and nature of
subsurface material, natural moisture content, density, permeability, etc,
shown for different strata, the sections present very useful data for
design studies.
*Classification and identification of soils for
revision) .
tCode of practice for presentation of drilling
foundation investigation.
22
general engineering purpose8 (j&s:
information and core description in
24. BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS
Headquarters;
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