European unity has historical precedents such as the Roman Empire and periods of relative peace under certain rulers. However, the modern concept of a united Europe emerged in the late Middle Ages. Over subsequent centuries, various leaders and intellectuals proposed plans for political and economic integration on the continent to promote peace. After World War 2, there was renewed interest in European unity. Key milestones included the Council of Europe in 1949 and foundations of the European Economic Community in 1957. While national interests still play a role, supranational institutions like the European Court of Justice have gradually increased integration at the expense of complete sovereignty of member states. Expansion has furthered the scope of European unity while also creating new challenges to its cultural and political cohesion

1. Nationalism andNationalism and
European UnityEuropean Unity

2. The Origin of European UnityThe Origin of European Unity
 Europe was 'united' at several times in theEurope was 'united' at several times in the
past, mainly in classical timespast, mainly in classical times
 Roman EmpireRoman Empire
 ChristendomChristendom
 Successors like Charlemagne, HabsburgsSuccessors like Charlemagne, Habsburgs
claim title of Holy Roman Emperor - justclaim title of Holy Roman Emperor - just
as various rulers in the Islamic worldas various rulers in the Islamic world
claimed to be Caliphclaimed to be Caliph
 'Europe' replaces Christendom as key idea,'Europe' replaces Christendom as key idea,
c 1300-1350c 1300-1350

3. Warfare and the European IdeaWarfare and the European Idea
 Desire to limit warfare within states wasDesire to limit warfare within states was
always key to the European Ideaalways key to the European Idea
 George Podebrad (Hussite king ofGeorge Podebrad (Hussite king of
Bohemia) scheme for a compact againstBohemia) scheme for a compact against
the Turks (1458-71). Main Europeanthe Turks (1458-71). Main European
Institutions:Institutions:
1.1. AssemblyAssembly
2.2. Court of JusticeCourt of Justice
3.3. International arbitrationInternational arbitration
4.4. ArmyArmy
5.5. Confederal budgetConfederal budget

4. French Ideals of Europe, c.French Ideals of Europe, c.
16001600
 Sully's 'Grand Design':Sully's 'Grand Design':
1.1. Peace in EuropePeace in Europe
2.2. Joint armyJoint army
3.3. Alliance against Turks and TsarAlliance against Turks and Tsar
4.4. Trade promotionTrade promotion
5.5. Representational central bodyRepresentational central body
6.6. French asFrench as lingua francalingua franca
7.7. France viewed as leaderFrance viewed as leader
8.8. A federal plan which respected nationalA federal plan which respected national
distinctivenessdistinctiveness
9.9. Sought revival of Imperial and PapalSought revival of Imperial and Papal
authority as sources of legitimacyauthority as sources of legitimacy

5. Enlightenment EuropeanismEnlightenment Europeanism
 Penn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and othersPenn, Diderot, Paine, St Simon and others
 Were cosmopolitan liberalsWere cosmopolitan liberals
 Europeanism and cosmopolitanism linkedEuropeanism and cosmopolitanism linked
 Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,Favoured Europeanism as a ticket to peace,
prosperity and Enlightenmentprosperity and Enlightenment
 St Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism asSt Simon claims in 1821 that Europeanism as
a sentiment already took precedence overa sentiment already took precedence over
nationalismnationalism
 St Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor ofSt Simon sees Anglo-French hub as motor of
EuropeEurope
 End to Papal and Roman dreams; harmonyEnd to Papal and Roman dreams; harmony
among peoples rather than rulersamong peoples rather than rulers

6. The Evolution of the EuropeanThe Evolution of the European
IdeaIdea
 Napoleon speaks of one EuropeanNapoleon speaks of one European
fatherlandfatherland
 After Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideasAfter Napoleonic Wars, St Simon's ideas
influential and popular. Influencedinfluential and popular. Influenced
Lemonnier'sLemonnier's Les Etats-Unis d'EuropeLes Etats-Unis d'Europe
(1872)(1872)
 Revival of interest in St Simon after WWIRevival of interest in St Simon after WWI
 Most schemes were federal, though someMost schemes were federal, though some
post-WWI radicals rejected the nationpost-WWI radicals rejected the nation
outrightoutright

7. Europeanism pre-1939Europeanism pre-1939
 Briand envisions 'union for economic,Briand envisions 'union for economic,
political [and] social cooperationpolitical [and] social cooperation''
 Took care not to infringe state sovereigntyTook care not to infringe state sovereignty
 Met a cool reception from most politiciansMet a cool reception from most politicians
and opposition from many newspapers,and opposition from many newspapers,
especially on the French rightespecially on the French right
 Paneuropean ideas taken up by non-Paneuropean ideas taken up by non-
Communist resistance movements duringCommunist resistance movements during
WWIIWWII
 Kalergi influences Churchill's 'UnitedKalergi influences Churchill's 'United
States of Europe' speech of 1946States of Europe' speech of 1946

8. Post-WWIIPost-WWII
 Favourable climate due to warFavourable climate due to war
 But this time, improved communicationsBut this time, improved communications
and a more cosmopolitan temperand a more cosmopolitan temper
converted the dream into a realityconverted the dream into a reality
 Christian Democratic parties in EuropeChristian Democratic parties in Europe
with their Catholic links, romanticise thewith their Catholic links, romanticise the
Papal past and favour union, as do manyPapal past and favour union, as do many
socialistssocialists
 Humanitarian, pacifist and religiousHumanitarian, pacifist and religious
themes blend with economic rationality ofthemes blend with economic rationality of
free tradersfree traders

9. Council of EuropeCouncil of Europe
 Not ECNot EC
 10 original members, 194910 original members, 1949
 Developed European Convention onDeveloped European Convention on
Human Rights (1950)Human Rights (1950)
 Elements:Elements:
The SecretariatThe Secretariat
The Committee of MinistersThe Committee of Ministers
The Parliamentary Assembly The EuropeanThe Parliamentary Assembly The European
Court of Human RightsCourt of Human Rights
The Commissioner for Human RightsThe Commissioner for Human Rights
European Commission for DemocracyEuropean Commission for Democracy
through Law, better known as the Venicethrough Law, better known as the Venice

10. Council of Europe's CulturalCouncil of Europe's Cultural
'Nationalism''Nationalism'
 Developed EuropeanDeveloped European
flag with 12 goldenflag with 12 golden
stars (1955)stars (1955)
 Established 5 MayEstablished 5 May
1949 as Europe Day1949 as Europe Day
(1964)(1964)
 Anthem based onAnthem based on
Beethoven'sBeethoven's Ode toOde to
JoyJoy (1972)(1972)
 Has 46 membersHas 46 members
today: distinct fromtoday: distinct from
EU, butEU, but
complementarycomplementary

11. European CommunityEuropean Community
 Council of Europe, 1949, a forerunnerCouncil of Europe, 1949, a forerunner
 European Coal & Steel Community, 1952European Coal & Steel Community, 1952
 European Economic Community, 1957European Economic Community, 1957
 EuratomEuratom
 Further aspects added after 1957Further aspects added after 1957
 Expansion from original 'Six' to present 25Expansion from original 'Six' to present 25

12. The Evolution of the EuropeanThe Evolution of the European
CommunityCommunity

13. EU StructureEU Structure
European
Commission
(Nations appoint
commissioners, but
bureaucracy tends to be
idealistic and pro-Europe)
European
Parliament
(parties are based on
national ones, but MEPs
tend to be more
pro-Europe)
Council of Ministers
(Mainly an organ for
intergovernmentalism and
national interest politics,
but QMV operates)
European Court of
Justice (ECJ)
(Decisions tend to
infringe upon national
sovereignty)
Nation-State
Sovereignty/
Identity

14. The Role of Idealists in the EU Legislative ProcessThe Role of Idealists in the EU Legislative Process

15. EU structureEU structure
 Degree of centralisation varies byDegree of centralisation varies by
function:function:
AA Federation (i.e. 'State')Federation (i.e. 'State') inin
monetary affairs, agricultural, trademonetary affairs, agricultural, trade
and environmental policy. Also inand environmental policy. Also in
legal-social aspects and citizenshiplegal-social aspects and citizenship
AA ConfederationConfederation in social andin social and
economic policy, consumereconomic policy, consumer
protection, internal affairsprotection, internal affairs
AnAn International OrganisationInternational Organisation inin
foreign affairsforeign affairs

16. Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)Qualified Majority Voting (QMV)
 Since Nice Treaty (2000), an increasingSince Nice Treaty (2000), an increasing
number of decisions taken by QMV rathernumber of decisions taken by QMV rather
than unanimitythan unanimity
 QMV threshold set to fall from 71% toQMV threshold set to fall from 71% to
62%62%
 Means that nations no longer have a vetoMeans that nations no longer have a veto
on integration. A step favouringon integration. A step favouring
integration rather than nationalismintegration rather than nationalism
(intergovernmentalism)(intergovernmentalism)
 Council of MinistersCouncil of Ministers

17. Shift from Unanimity to QMVShift from Unanimity to QMV
 27 new provisions are passing in whole or in27 new provisions are passing in whole or in
part from unanimity to a qualified majority,part from unanimity to a qualified majority,
including:including:
judicial cooperation in civil mattersjudicial cooperation in civil matters
industrial policyindustrial policy
measures to facilitate the free movement ofmeasures to facilitate the free movement of
citizenscitizens
economic, financial and technical cooperation witheconomic, financial and technical cooperation with
third countriesthird countries
the appointment of members of certainthe appointment of members of certain
institutionsinstitutions
 the move to qualified majority voting wasthe move to qualified majority voting was
not accepted for social and tax policy.not accepted for social and tax policy.

18. EU Citizenship vs NationalEU Citizenship vs National
 Freedom to move and take upFreedom to move and take up
residence anywhere in the Union;residence anywhere in the Union;
 The right to vote and stand in localThe right to vote and stand in local
government and Europeangovernment and European
Parliament elections in the country ofParliament elections in the country of
residenceresidence
 Clearly gives foreigners importantClearly gives foreigners important
rights within nation-statesrights within nation-states

19. Balance between Nation andBalance between Nation and
EUEU
 Always a balance between nation-stateAlways a balance between nation-state
interests and pan-European interestinterests and pan-European interest
 Battle goes on between and withinBattle goes on between and within
institutionsinstitutions
 Balance between Euro-idealism andBalance between Euro-idealism and
proponents of national interestproponents of national interest
('intergovernmentalism')('intergovernmentalism')
 Sometimes interests of small nationsSometimes interests of small nations
dovetail with that of integrationists (theydovetail with that of integrationists (they
have more clout to gain from being part ofhave more clout to gain from being part of
Europe )Europe )

20. European Court of JusticeEuropean Court of Justice
 A more direct proponent of integration thanA more direct proponent of integration than
even the Commissioneven the Commission
 One judge per state, but decisions based onOne judge per state, but decisions based on
simple majoritysimple majority
 Judges and the 8 appointed advocates-Judges and the 8 appointed advocates-
general may often be Euro-idealists orgeneral may often be Euro-idealists or
activist in their philosophyactivist in their philosophy
 Van Gend en LoosVan Gend en Loos case (1963) givescase (1963) gives
individuals rights under EU law against theirindividuals rights under EU law against their
nation-statesnation-states
 Costa v. ENELCosta v. ENEL case (1964): where nationalcase (1964): where national
and EU law conflict, latter is supremeand EU law conflict, latter is supreme

21. ECJ Positive and NegativeECJ Positive and Negative
IntegrationIntegration
 Promotes 'negative integration':Promotes 'negative integration':
barriers to intra-EU activity declaredbarriers to intra-EU activity declared
invalidinvalid
 Promotes 'positive integration': ECPromotes 'positive integration': EC
legal regimes constructed to replacelegal regimes constructed to replace
national onesnational ones
 Negative Integration: 1974 caseNegative Integration: 1974 case
declared rules which hinder intra-ECdeclared rules which hinder intra-EC
trade illegal; 1979 Cassis de Dijontrade illegal; 1979 Cassis de Dijon

22. ECJ Positive IntegrationECJ Positive Integration
 Examples:Examples:
Gender Equality: Art. 119 of EECGender Equality: Art. 119 of EEC
Treaty: 'equal pay for equal work'Treaty: 'equal pay for equal work'
EU as 'Social Community', despiteEU as 'Social Community', despite
opposition from UKopposition from UK
Opens up a flood of litigation fromOpens up a flood of litigation from
womenwomen

23. EU ExpansionEU Expansion

24. Impact of ExpansionImpact of Expansion
 Expansion to 25 will dilute integrationExpansion to 25 will dilute integration
 Harder for a common foreign policy andHarder for a common foreign policy and
common actioncommon action
 More poor countries will put strain on EUMore poor countries will put strain on EU
budget - unlikely that wealthy countriesbudget - unlikely that wealthy countries
will contribute more (EU budget aroundwill contribute more (EU budget around
1.5% of EU GDP)1.5% of EU GDP)
 Turkey and E Europe: Unclear where limitsTurkey and E Europe: Unclear where limits
lie: will this not dilute identity of EU (ie.lie: will this not dilute identity of EU (ie.
No longer between Tsar and Sultan)No longer between Tsar and Sultan)
 Possible 'Two-Speed' EuropePossible 'Two-Speed' Europe

25. Problems with EuropeanProblems with European
Cultural or Civilizational IdentityCultural or Civilizational Identity
 Exclusive or Partial Items:Exclusive or Partial Items:
Christianity (Catholic, Prot, Orthodox, non-Christianity (Catholic, Prot, Orthodox, non-
Christian)Christian)
Greco-Roman Inheritance (Islam?)Greco-Roman Inheritance (Islam?)
Reformation/Enlightenment (Islam,Reformation/Enlightenment (Islam,
Catholicism?)Catholicism?)
Caucasian ‘race’ (US, non-white Europeans?)Caucasian ‘race’ (US, non-white Europeans?)
Geography (but what about EU expansion)Geography (but what about EU expansion)
‘‘Others’ (but if Turks and Russians come in,Others’ (but if Turks and Russians come in,
where are the traditional enemies?)where are the traditional enemies?)

26. Pro-European NationsPro-European Nations
 Certain states embrace integrationistCertain states embrace integrationist
sentiments more than otherssentiments more than others
 France, Germany and other original membersFrance, Germany and other original members
(especially the 'Six') are most pro-Europe(especially the 'Six') are most pro-Europe
among western European countriesamong western European countries
 Much has to do with national identities ofMuch has to do with national identities of
these states as opposed to mere nationalthese states as opposed to mere national
interestinterest
 Europe also a route to prominence on theEurope also a route to prominence on the
world stage for certain nationsworld stage for certain nations
 Less well-off nations tend to be pro-EuropeLess well-off nations tend to be pro-Europe
for economic reasons (S & E Europe +for economic reasons (S & E Europe +
Ireland)Ireland)

27. France: Gaullist pro-France: Gaullist pro-
EuropeanismEuropeanism
 Seeks to reclaim French culturalSeeks to reclaim French cultural
predominance of 18predominance of 18thth
-19-19thth
cc
 Seeks to challenge Anglo-SaxonSeeks to challenge Anglo-Saxon
hegemony of 19hegemony of 19thth
-20-20thth
cc
 Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’Sees Anglo-Saxon west as ‘other’
 De Gaulle positions France at the heart ofDe Gaulle positions France at the heart of
a Europe that includes Russia and isa Europe that includes Russia and is
flanked by Anglo-Saxon West and Chineseflanked by Anglo-Saxon West and Chinese
EastEast
 1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which1963 crisis over UK entry into EEC which
De Gaulle seeks to block UK entryDe Gaulle seeks to block UK entry

28. German pro-European IdealismGerman pro-European Idealism
 Nazi period discredits nationalismNazi period discredits nationalism
 Cosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spiritCosmopolitan as opposed to Gaullist spirit
 Desire for influence and self-respectDesire for influence and self-respect
without nationalismwithout nationalism
 Less anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWIILess anti-Anglo-Saxon due to post-WWII
(witness different attitudes toward English(witness different attitudes toward English
as language)as language)
 More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-More truly cosmopolitan than French pro-
EuropeanismEuropeanism

29. Smaller Nations: BeneluxSmaller Nations: Benelux
 History of neutrality and fear of largerHistory of neutrality and fear of larger
nationsnations
 History of pooling sovereignty in alliancesHistory of pooling sovereignty in alliances
 Only chance of agency is through a largerOnly chance of agency is through a larger
unitunit
 Identity is less significant in absence ofIdentity is less significant in absence of
larger blockslarger blocks
 Belgium and Luxembourg lack clearBelgium and Luxembourg lack clear
linguistic or religious markers oflinguistic or religious markers of
nationhood unlike say Germany or Francenationhood unlike say Germany or France

30. Do you feel national,Do you feel national,
European or Both (2004)?European or Both (2004)?

31. Views of Unification (1995)Views of Unification (1995)

32. Euroskepticism – On the Rise?Euroskepticism – On the Rise?
 Smith: elites identify more easily becauseSmith: elites identify more easily because
Europeanism may be a proxy ofEuropeanism may be a proxy of
class/educationclass/education
 Smith: without European education andSmith: without European education and
media, little resonance among masses –media, little resonance among masses –
esp less mobileesp less mobile
 Evidence shows that Euro-skepticism andEvidence shows that Euro-skepticism and
anti-immigration sentiment strongly linkedanti-immigration sentiment strongly linked
and tied to less well-educated populationand tied to less well-educated population
segmentssegments
 Rise in support for European integrationRise in support for European integration
peaks, 1988peaks, 1988

33. ConclusionConclusion
 Idea of Europe is at least 1000 years oldIdea of Europe is at least 1000 years old
 Many aspects of the European UnionMany aspects of the European Union
challenge national sovereigntychallenge national sovereignty
 But the EU also reinforces national identityBut the EU also reinforces national identity
 Particular nations tend to favour EuropeanParticular nations tend to favour European
unity due to their own historicalunity due to their own historical
experience and economic interestsexperience and economic interests
 Trend towards integration appears to haveTrend towards integration appears to have
stalled due to expansion and the rise ofstalled due to expansion and the rise of
Euro-skepticism in western EuropeEuro-skepticism in western Europe