The document provides a summary of the major ideas that shaped the world in the early 1800s including liberalism, conservatism, nationalism, and democracy. It discusses how the Congress of Vienna was dominated by conservatives who aimed to restore the pre-revolution status quo through the principles of legitimacy and the balance of power. It also describes the rise of the Concert of Europe and the Metternich system which suppressed revolutionary movements for several decades but ultimately collapsed due to various revolutions across Europe in 1830 and 1848 which weakened the influence of absolute monarchs.

1. WORLD HISTORY
IDEAS SHAPING A NEW WORLD
- Good Afternoon everyone. Today, I will be your reporter and today’s discussion will be all
about the Different Ideas that Shapes the New World. We all know for a fact that changes
happens everytime and everytimenagkakaroon ng changes e may nadedevelopna new
concepts or ideas which is more progressive. And these changes of ideas nga ay talagang we
can say brought development samundonatin. And the process of observation generates ideas.
When these ideas are implemented, they lead to change , which is seen as a form of progress.
IDEAS SHAPING THE WORLD
Like most new centuries, the early 1800s was a time when new ideas were changing old
traditions. To most people at the time, “liberalism” was better because it would bring
change and improvement. To be liberal meant to change the old order of things and to
support popular rule, and reforms in politics and society, much like the ideas of the
Enlightenment and the French Revolutions. Support for liberalism and democracy was
growing among the masses and the educated middle class. They were the majority, but
they were not the most powerful.
Liberalism aims to disperse power, diversity and to nurture creativity. Liberalism
stands not only for the principle that we all have an equal right to freedom but
liberalism is a workable ideal. Samadalingsalita, liberalism is best understood as a
specific historical movement of ideas. Nagproprovideito ng different set of ideas
napwedengiarticulate in different ways.
On the other hand, “conservatism” supported the old traditions of politics and
social order. Conservatives resisted changes as threats totheir way of life. Edmund
Burke, an English Statesman, spoke out for conservatism. He condemned the French
Revolution because it destroyed monarchy and traditions. Support for conservatism was
strong among the ruling classes. They were powerful, but they were not the majority.
● conservatism is a commitment to traditional values and ideals. Conservatists
doesn’t allow changes or innovations in their lifestyle.
● Example : Believing in the freedom and justice for all/ No one is above the law
Another powerful force sweeping the world was “nationalism”. Nationalism or love
of nation was both a positive and negative force. It could unite people behind a common
cause, such as political independence. But it could also tear them apart into extreme
hatred of others. It could become a source of war, as in the problems of the Balkans.
Liberals supported nationalists who wanted independence from foreign control.
Conservatives feared nationalism, because it threatened to upset the traditional political
order.
● When we say nationalism naman, it is the identification of one’s own nation and
support for its interests. Ito yung loyalty and devotion sa nation ng mgatao.
Because of nationalism, nagkakaroon ng sense of togetherness angmgatao in
terms of ethnic, religious, linguistic, territorial and other unities.
● Nationalism is one of the most potent forces in humanity. At its core, it is an
ideology which binds a group of people together, usually through national
identity. Nationalism is the desire for political independence of people who feel
they are historically or culturally a separate group within a country
Finally, “democracy”, or the rule of the people, was completely unacceptable to
most rulers in this era. To them, political power belonged to kings,emperors,nobles or
even popes. Yet, the 18th century had expanded knowledge of the natural rights of
people, even political independence and the right to vote. As De Tocqueville observed of

2. the 18th century, “Revolutions happen, not when things are bad, but when things are just
beginning to get better”. Things were beginning to get better for the world, hence in the
1800s there were rising expectations and, alas, many revolutions.
● Democracy is a type of government in which the supreme power is vested in the
people and exercised by them directly or indirectly through a system of
representation usually involving periodically held free elections. It is a matter of
the free choice of government, not the pursuit of popular policies.
CONGRESS OF VIENNA
Conservatives dominated the Congress of Vienna, the impromptu conference that
decided the fate of the world after the Napoleonic Wars. The Congress was a summit
meeting of heads of state of the leading powers and other important statesmen.
● The Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 was the most important international
diplomatic conference in European political order after the downfall of the
French Emperor Napoleon I.
● The first priority of the Congress of Vienna was to deal with territorial
issues; a new configuration of German states, the reorganization of central
Europe, the borders of central Italy and territorial transfers in Scandinavia
It met from September 1814 toJune 1815. Its presiding genius was Prince Clemens
von Metternich, the Austrian Chancellor (Prime Minister) because Austria was then the
greatest power. The most influential leaders were : Czar Alexander I of Russia, King
Friedrich Willhelm III of Prussia, Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Minister; and of
course, Prince Metternich of Austria. The French delegate, Charles Maurice de
Talleyrand, also played a major role at the Congress.
The Congress was guided by two main principles– to enforce legitimacy and the
balance of power.
● The Vienna Congress created long lasting peace and set the basic rules of
multilateral diplomacy and protocol. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a
series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of
Europe, an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as
a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the
United Nations in 1945. They included the establishment of a confederated
Germany, the division of French protectorates and annexations into
independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon Kings of Spain, the
enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern
Belgium and the continuation of British subsidies to its allies.
● In short, The Congress was the first occasion in history where on a
continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties
instead of relying mostly on messages between the several capitals.
LEGITIMACY- The Congress of Vienna restored to power the royal families that had
lost their thrones during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic conquests. Louis
XVIII, brother of the unfortunate Louis XVI, became the new king of France; the king of
Spain, Portugal, and Sardinia were also restored. Thus, the legitimacy of the Old
Regimes were reinforced, or so they thought.
The Congress of Vienna was guided by certain principles, one being the idea of
legitimacy. It was Metternich’s firm belief that it was necessary to restore the
legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions in order to re-
establish peace and stability in Europe. Talleyrand, the foreign miniter of France was

3. the deviser of this principle. As per the decision, the rulers have to get back their rights
that are overthrown by Napoleon.
BALANCE OF POWER-To restore the balance of power in Europe and to prevent future
French aggression, the Congress reduced France to its 1790 borders. Then, it strengthened
countries on the borders of France. More countries were strengthened, such as Austria, Russia
and Prussia, by obtaining new territories. Britain got a handsome reward of more colonies for
leading the long struggle against Napoleon.
● Elsewhere, however, the principle of legitimacy was largely ignored because of
the second more practical principle at the Congress; the idea of compensation
and the balance of power.
However, the Congress did not consult the people living in he areas they handed over
to the Big Powers. If only they had asked them, they would have saved themselves a lot
headaches later on. The great powers had disregarded the growing trend for nationalism
and democracy in Europe. This explained much of the national upheavals which flared
up in Europe in the 1800s.
● Through this activities nagkaroon ng revolution known as Revolutions of 1848
(Springtime of the Peoples). This revolutions were essentially democratic and
liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and
creating independent nation-states..
THE CONCERT OF EUROPE
Toprotect the peace settlement, Austria, Britain, Prussia and Russia formed the
Quadruple Alliance in November 1815. France was admitted to the Alliance later. These
great powers met from time to time to deal with new threats to the peace and stability of
Europe.
● The idea of a concert of Europe was suggested by the Austrian Chancellor,
Kaunitz in 1971 and it found expression in the Treaty of Chaumont.
● From 1815 to 1914, the Concert of Europe established a set of principles, rules
and practices that helped to maintain balance between the major powers after
the Napoleonic Wars and to spare Europe from another broad conflict.
● Etong Concert of Europe ay isang alliance group to assure na members of it or
yungmga nations would support each other kapag may revolution or war
namaganap.
Czar Alexander proposed an additional “Holy Alliance of Christian nations” to
replace the unfortunate Holy Roman Empire. Britain dismissed this idea as “nonsense”,
but many rulers agreed to join anyway. The twoalliances encouraged nations to act
together to preserve the peace. The system of summit meetings to settle international
problems became known as the “Concert of Europe”. The word “concert” in this case did
not mean a musical event. Rather, it meant a mutual agreement of state leaders. The
Concert of Europe enforced the settlement reached at Vienna. It preserved the balance
of power and prevented local conflicts from turning into another major continental war.
However, after 1822, the Concert of Europe was dissolved. England withdrew its
membership due to Metternich’s antidemocratic policies.
● Holy Alliance- ay isang organization ng mga European soveregins. The avowed
purpose neto is to promote the influence of Christian principles in the affairs of
nations

4. ● The Concert of Europe, despite later changes and diplomatic breakdowns
a few decades later, formed the basic framework for European international
politics until the breakout of the First World War in 1914.
● The Concert of Europe ay walangmga written rules or permanent na
Institutions, pero if magkaroon ng crisis, pwedengmagpatawag ng conference
angmga member netong countries.
THE METTERNICH SYSTEM
For more than 30 years (1815-48), Prince Metternich of Austria dominated European
politics. His main goal was to defend the work of the Congress of Vienna and to oppose
both liberalism and nationalism. His policies became known as the “Metternich
system”– a policy of defending the status quo (existing conditions).
the System of Mettenich was of two elements. Firstly to dam up the tide of revolution at
home and secondly to maintain the status quo in Europe. Hence, the main objective ng
system naito is maresolve and mga disputes nalaganapsa Europe.
However, many challenges to the status quo came and could not be suppressed forever.
Unfortunately, Metternich’s response was always to suppress freedom and impose
tyranny. Because he was the dominant figure of the early 1800s (1815-48), the half-
century was called the “Metternich Era”. It is common in history to name an era after its
leading personality.
During the Metternich Era, all revolutionary movements for democracy and
nationalism were suppressed by the armies of the Concert of Europe. As long as
Metternich remained in power, democracy had no chance to bloom in the Western
world. Alas, he miscalculated the strength of nationalism in Europe.
● Metternich is naging symbol of those forces eager to preserve the status quo.
The Age of Metternich is sometimes known as the age of the Concert, due to the
influence of the Austrian chancellor’s conservatism and the dominance of
Austria within German Confederation.
METTERNICH’S DOWNFALL
Metternich fell from the height of power , like all great leaders in history. The causes of
Metternich’s downfall were as follows; (1) England’s opposition to his policies, (2) the
war of Greek independence in 1821-29; (3) the revolutions of 1830; and (4) the
revolutions of 1848.
England started out as ally of the group , but later opposed a foreign policy that
antagonized other nations and cut off its channels of trade. In 1822, it left the Concert of
Europe because of differences over the policy on Spain. The English adopted an
independent foreign policy from then on.
The Metternich program was a set of meetings of the most influential European
nations between the Napoleonic war and the First World War. Ethnic aspect was the
cause behind its declining influence in the Austrian Empire and there were various
reasons which contributed to the downfall of Metternich.
Next , Prince Metternich refused to help the Greek patriots who were fighting their old
enemy, the Turks. The Greeks won their independence against the Ottoman Empire
anyway (1821-29), with the help of Britain and France. The success of the Greek war of
independence was another blow to Metternich’s prestige.

5. NEW ERA OF REVOLUTIONS
Revolts in many nations
The ideals of the French Revolution continued to inspire demands for reforms. In
France, middle class liberals and workers joined forces in 1830 and 1848 to upset the
status quo created at the Congress of Vienna. From 2815-48, France had three more
kings- Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis Philippe. They tread lightly, so as not to
antagonize the people. But they failed anyway. After the first died, the last twoFrench
kings abdicated and fled for safety toEngland.
Events in France continued to ingluence the rest of Europe. As Matternich dryly noted,
"When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold." Indeed, a wave of revolutions, inspired
by France, swept across Europe in 1830 and 1848. Liberals and nationalists many parts
of Europe renewed their struggles against the old order.
Revolutions in 1830
The wave of revolutions swept Europe about 1830 and further weakend despots'
influence. These revolutions were directed against absolute rulers.
In France, Charles X enraged his subjects by dissolving the Chamber of Deputies and
restricting their constitutional rights. The French patriots rose in revolution in July
1830 and drove him to flee to England. Charles X was the last Bourbon king of France.
He abdicated in favor of his little grandson, the Count of Chambord. The successful
revolutionists ignored the little count, and established a constitutional monarchy, with
Louis Philippe(Duke of Orleans) as king. This monarchy was called the "Orleans
Monarchy" (1830-48).
The July 1830 Revolution in France spread to other countries. The Belgians rose against
their Dutch king and proclaimed their independence in October 1830. Some German
states followed the example of France and Belgium. They won constitutional
concessions from their rulers. Revolutionary outbreaks also flared up in Italian city-
states. However, these were unsuccessful because matternich sent Austrian troops to
crush the insurrections. In 1831, the Poles also rose in arms against Russian rule. They
fought valiantly, but were defeated by the Russian forces.
Revolutions in 1848
Another wave of revolutions rocked Europe in 1848. It started in France in February 22,
1848 when King Louis Philippe's soldiers fired upon demonstrating students in Paris.
Enraged by this atrocity, the people rose in arms. "Long Live the Republic!" they
shouted. The frightened Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England like his
predecessor, Charles X. The victorious rebels established a Second French Republic.
The February 1848 Revolution in France spread again to other European countries.
Milan, Venetia, Naples, Tuscany, the Papal States, and Piedmont revolted against their
rulers and princes. The Austrian troops stationed there by Matternich were defeated and
expelled.
In 1848, Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian leader, led the libertarian struggle against the
Russian czar and established the Republic of Hungary, which lasted only for five
months. The combined Austrian and Russian armies invaded Hungary and forced
Kossuth to flee to the United States. But the revolt forced Austria to make Hungary
autonomous in a new Dual Monarchy system.
End of Absolute Kings

6. On March 13, 1848, Viennese students and laborers clashed with government troops.
The rebels stormed the imperial place, demanding the dismissal of Prince Matternich.
Sensing that he was finished, Metternich, now a white-haired old man, resigned. The
following day, he and his wife quietly departed for London. His beautiful house was
sacked and burned by the angry populace. Metternich's downfall ended the era of
absolutism. In Europe, from now on, the people ruled and the kings shared power with
them in parliamentary systems.
Impact of the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848
Although the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 had few successes, they did not entirely fail.
They suffered from lack of unity and lack of definite goals. However, in their aftermath,
European monarchies chose to share power with elected parliaments.
Conservatives still ruled Europe, but liberals and nationalists were making their voices
heard. During the 1850's, conservative governments tried to suppress revolutionary
ideas. Due to political persecution, many liberals fled to Britain, Switzerland, and the
United States, which were becoming renowned havens for democracy.
NATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACY GROW IN EUROPE
After the Revolutions of 1830, many European nations experienced a_ burst of
democracy. Britain, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands took the lead.
Belgium, Italy, Spain, Turkey, the Balkan kingdoms, and even Russia adopted some
forms of democratic rule. At first, they became interested in political democracy -
popular representation, suffrage, and human rights, Later, they also introduced social
and economic democracy.
The -progress of democracy was accompanied by a vigorous growth of nationalism, and
its offshoots, imperialism and the struggle for power among nations. As you read earlier,
nationalism means love of nation. Nationalism makes a people conscious of a common
history or a common destiny.
At first, nationalism was a force for good because it led to more political liberties and
social reform, Later, nationalism became too powerful and led to illusions of racial
Superiority and imperialism’ in the 20th century.
Growth of Democracy in Britain
When Queen Victoria of England celebrated her Diamond Jubilee in 1887, she was the
only beloved monarch in Europe. The British monarchs were wise and had shared
power with the aristocracy and, eventually, with the common people as well. Britain
developed democracy early (see Chapter 13).
But these privileges belonged to only a small number of rich people. Only 6 per cent of
British men could vote for members (representatives) of the House of Commons, No
British woman could vote at all, A voter had to be a man who owned land or property in
order to have a say in the government. Democracy grew in Britain at this time in three
ways: (1) the extension of suffrage (right to vote); (2) the development of the cabinet
system; and (3) the supremacy of the elected leaders to the inherited leaders. Political
reforms led to social reforms as well. Women suffrage would enter the stream. of world
history through Britain, thanks to the courage of some women pioneers (see story on the
suffragettes).
Let Me Vote, or Let Me Die!- The Suffragettes
Nowadays, we take it for granted that women have equal rights to vote and to hold office
as men. Of course, Filipinos were the first Asians to pioneer, not only voting women, but
also in voting women into public office. The first women cabinet members, women

7. legislators, and women presidents, came from the Philippines. But there was a time in
history when no woman could vote or run for public office. It took some brave British
and American women in the early 1900s tocampaign for women suffrage. The police
and some men thought they were the "insufferables." Actually, they were called the
"suffragettes." We owe them a lasting debt of gratitude. The suffragettes, or women who
demanded the right to vote, often experienced violence and prison. In 1903, Emmeline
Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel organized the first female sufiragette
organization in London. When the government failed to act, they began leading rallies
and marches, with other supporters. Police broke up their noisy rallies. They sometimes
came home with bruises, scratches, black eyes and bleeding noses. But they did not stop.
They broke into cabinet meetings. Women chained themselves to the House of
Commons. They painted slogans "Votes for Women," on walls and sidewalks.
Imprisoned for these disturbances, the suffragettes went on hunger strikes. On one
occasion,a prison doctor tried to persuade Mrs. Pankhurst to break her hunger strike.
"What are you going to eat?" he asked her. "My determination," she shouted back.
Finally, in 1918, the British Parliament decided on the historic right for women to vote,
the same as men, but only for women over 30 years old. It took another ten years, in
1928, for them to lower the voting age for women. Mrs. Pankhurst died a week before
the historicnews. She had become weak from too many prison terms and hunger strikes.
Expanding the Right to vote.
Expanding the Right to Vote. Prior to 1832 the British Parliament, which had limited the
power of the monarch, was still controlled by aristocrats and rich landlords. The
democratic legacy of the French Revolution led to pressure for more democratic rights
for the middle class and common people.
Under the leadership of Lord Grey, the British Parliament passed the Reform Act of
1832. The law gave the vote tomiddle class adult males and created more seats in the
House of Commons, thus enlarging the electorate and the representatives of the people.
-
Following protests by workers, the right of suffrage was guaranteed by secret ballot and
for all adult males. Then, in 1918, the right of suffrage was obtained by British women.
At about the same time, American women also won the right to vote. - Filipino women,
due to the British and American tradition, became the first Asian women to Vote in 1935
Development of the Cabinet System
Development of the Cabinet System. Apart from reform laws, Britain developed
unwritten traditions which strengthened the practice of democracy. One political
tradition was the “cabinet system” of governing, The cabinet system has been adopted
by many governments throughout the world, including the Philippines.
The cabinet first appeared in the 1600s tohelp the king make important decisions.
When the government ministers met in secret and behind closed doors, it appeared they
had gone into a “cabinet.”
The growth of the cabinet system of government in Britain helped to make sure that
leaders of the people were united in making political decisions for the nation. Ina
cabinet system, the elected leaders divide the management of the work of government
into different ministries (military, finance, foreign affairs, etc.). The government
managers are usually called “ministers,” and each becomes responsible for the work of
his/her ministry. The prime minister is the leader of the majority political party in
parliament, and he appoints the cabinet ministers who will work with him in running
the government. The first prime minister was Sir Robert Walpole (1721-42).
Supremacy of Elected Leaders.

8. .Elected members in the House of Commons gained supremacy over the nobles in the
House of Lords in 1911 after a government crisis. After that, the real power transferred
to the elected members of parliament, who could be replaced through elections. The
inherited aristocrats or nobles took a back seat in running the government. This ensured
the power of the people, through elections.
Self-Rule for some British Colonies
At this time, democracy and nationalism came early to some white peoples in British
colonies, Britain granted self-rule or independence to assertive white colonies like
Ireland (but not Northern Ireland), Canada, Australia and New Zealand. These
measures enabled democracy to develop in the separated countries.
Social Reforms
. Social reforms accompanied political reforms in Britain. During the 1800s, parliament
abolished slavery and the slave trade, reformed the criminal code, and protected
workers, including women and children. Later laws made education free and
compulsory, granted health insurance, pensions for the unemployed and elderly, and
fixed the minimum wage. .
Diamond Jubilee for Queen Victoria.
On June 21, 1897, her diary entry said, “The morning was beautiful and bright with a
fresh air. Troops began passing early with bands playing, and I heard constant
cheering.” This was the diary of Queen Victoria of Britain. * The day she described was a
joyful occasion for her people — the queen’s Diamond Jubilee, ° her 60" year on the
throne.
The celebration of Queen Victoria’s jubilee showed the respect and admiration her
people felt for the monarchy. It also symbolized British pride in their nation and its
achievements. During the 1800s, Britain became the greatest industrial, commercial
and military power in the world. The Victorian Age was the growth of Britain not only as
a world power, but, also as a stable democracy.
FRANCE FROM EMPIRE TO REPUBLIC
Napoleon III and the Second FrenchRepublic.
out of the chaos of the revolutions of 1848, a second Napoleon rose to Power in France.
He was Louis Napoleon, whose illustrious name fired the imagination of the French
people. Thus, they elected him in December 1848 as 'President of the Second French
Republic But he was a big disappointment; Victor Hugo, the famous writer, ridiculed
him as "Napoleon the Little"
On December 2, 1851, President LouisNapoleon, using the Same tactics employedby his
great Uncle, seized the governmentby coup .d'état. Hundreds who opposed himwere
arrested by his troops and thrown intoprison. Some courageous leaders of
Frenchdemocracy, including Victor Hugo (poet-novelist] and Adolph Thiers (historian-
statesman),Were exiled. The SecondFrenchEmpire (1852-72) was proclaimed.Louis
Napoleon was crowned as EmperorNapoleon III.
The empire prospered during the early years (1852-59). Commerce and Industry
expanded. Agricultural production increased.Railroads, roads, and canals were
built.prosperity kept both capitalists and laborershappy.
Then, 'the emperor ruined the empireby becoming ambitious for internationalcolonies
'and power: At this time, Francebegan to build its Asian colony in Indochina.The foreign
adventures of the emperor cost.the French dearly. Napoleon III got in troublewith the

9. Sardinians, the Mexican freedomfighters, and the Prussians. In 1870, he lost the Franco-
Prussian War and became a hostage of Bismarck’s Army. The French public had to pay a
huge price to release him and to please the German Victors.
Third French Republic[1870-1914).
On September. 4, 1870, when news reached Paris that the French army had surrendered
and Napoleon was captured, the republicans abolished the empire and proclaimed the
third French Republic, with Adolph. Thiers, provisional president. They negotiated a
treaty [May 10, 1871] which ended the Franco-Prussian War: This unfortunate royal
adventure had cost France dearly.
'The French paid $1 billion in damages and lost the border territories of Alsace-
Lorraine. Due to this loss, the French came to hate the Germans deeply. The seeds sown
during the Franco-Prussian War would mature decades later into the First World War
(1914-18).
Radicals in Paris were furious at the treaty In March 1871, they rose in revolt and set up
a brief anarchy called the Paris Commune. The government sent in troops to crush the
rebels. In a very harsh and violent week of battle, 20,000 supporters of' the Commune
were killed. lt was said that casualties were buried so quickly that many were buried
alive.
The `uprising left very bitter divisionsin French society for a long time. In 1875, by a
margin of only one vote, the National Assembly adopted a constitution for the Third
French Republic. It lurched from crisis to crisis, including the Panama Canal
scandal;the arrest of one president for reason;and the unfair conviction of Captain
Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew, [who was later pardoned). The Dreyfus scandal was exposed in
the French media byEmile Zola a popular French writer.
Democracy did not work smoothly inFrance as it did in England and the UnitedStates
.The existence of numerous politicalparties, 'the extreme French individualism,and the
sharp differences between' the ruraland the urban people made the
parliamentary;governments come .and There werefrequent change in the government.
Therewere nofixed terms for the governments;they fell when people lost Confidence
inthem.From 1871 to1914, a period of 43 years,about 50 cabinets governed France. But
theyNever had kings again.
UNIFICATION AND RISE OF GERMANY
Nationalism Inspires Basic Changes.
Nationalism played a key role in events in Central and Eastern Europe between 1848
and 1914. In some areas, it helped create unified nations. In other areas, nationalism
threatened to break up large empires. In both cases, it upset the status quo.
Prussia into Germany.
The modern state of Germany came from the Prussian confederation of smaller states.
With their common German language and ethnic background, the Prussians sought to
unite with guarantees for their rights.
In 1848, all Prussian states, not just a few, revolted and demanded "free press, limited
monarchy, and the unification of Germany" Eventually, they became successful because
of one man, Bismarck.
Bismarck, Unifier of Germany.

10. Ottovon Bismarck (1815-98) became Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Prussia in 1861.
The Prussian king Wilhelm I wanted a reform minded chancellor to help stabilize the
restless people.
Bismarck knew that a united German nation would face outside opposition. But he was
determined to upset the continent's balance of power, if necessary, in order to build a
strong new nation. In his inauguration, he said, "The great issues of the day will not be
decided by speeches and resolutions but by blood and iron." Thus he became known as
the "Iron Chancellor."
Wars to Unite Germany.
Toensure the survival of the new German nation, Chancellor Bismarck fought three
wars the Danish War (1864), the Seven Weeks' War (1866), and the Franco-Prussian
War (1870-71). With these wars, Prussia annexed territory from Denmark; Prussia got
supremacy over the other German states; and the French paid war indemnity and lost
territory tothe Germans. In the midst of the successful siege of Paris, the remaining
German states joined the Prussian German Confederation, which was later renamed the
new German Empire. The Prussian king became the new Kaiser (emperor). He wanted
to inaugurate his new empire, not in Prussia, but in the defeated foe's Versailles Palace.
In the shimmering Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, the new German nation held the solemn
proclamation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871. The French considered this as
insult added to the injury of losing the war. But the Germans loved their debut into the
world stage. Surrounded by kings, generals and notables, Chancellor Bismarck read the
imperial decree proclaiming the German Empire and Wilhelm I as the first Kaiser of
Germany. Germany took its place as a Big Power in the family of nations.
The Second Reich.
The new German Empire was called the Second Reich. "Reich" is the German word for
empire. This was the Second Reich because Germany considered the Holy Roman
Empire as the First Reich. Later on, you will read about the Third Reich, which caused
World War II. For now, the new German nation proudly showed the world the fruits of
the discipline and industriousness of the German people.
There were still forces of disunity at work. The German nobles (Junkers) did not want to
lose their traditional privileges. The Catholics distrusted the Protestants. Liberals hated
Bismarck's conservatism. Indeed, some critics predicted a quick break-up of the new
empire. But they underestimated the skills of the "Iron Chancellor."
The new Germany was a federal union of 25 states. But the main political power rested
firmly with Chancellor Bismarck, acting on behalf of the Kaiser. The army was
strengthened, and Bismarck ensured a prosperous economy. He proved to be a wise
statesman. He modified his strong policies from time to time to win over the nobles, the
Catholics, the workers, and the liberals.
After Bismarck, a new emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II (1892-1913), became the new
powerhouse for Germany. He wanted to make Germany a major commercial, colonial
and military power, like the other European nations. He joined other European powers
in competing for colonies in Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Germany tried to grab the
Philippines. When Spain lost the Battle of Manila Bay to Commodore Dewey and the US
squadron in December 1898, the German Kaiser sent five warships (greater than
Dewey's) to try topick up the Philippines for itself. They only retreated when the British
naval observers sided with the US Navy. Spain cleverly took advantage of German
interest, and sold the Marianas islands to Germany, instead of surrendering them to the
US in the Treaty of Paris.

11. Germans took pride in their cultural and economic achievements. Their composers
Beethoven and Wagner were cultural icons in any language. Their educational system
(developed by Bismarck) became the best science education in Europe. Students from
all over the world flocked to German universities
One such foreign student was a young man named Dr. Jose Rizal, from the Philippines.
Rizal came to Heidelberg in 1886, to work at the eye hospital and attend lectures at the
university. He stayed three months as a lodger with a Lutheran pastor in Wilhelmsfeld,
near Heidelberg. Rizal published his first novel Noli Me Tangere in Berlin, and wrote a
letter to the young women of Malolos, Bulacan, in which he expressed admiration for
German women's simplicity and frugality.
UNIFICATION OF ITALY
Italian unification, also known as the Risorgimento meaning "Resurgence", was the
19th-century political and social movement that resulted in the consolidation of
different states of the Italian Peninsula into a single state, the Kingdom of Italy.
Manila Cigars Spark a Revolt.
Austrian soldiers patrolling Milan, the capital of the Italian state of Lombardy, were
given Manila cigars and ordered to smoke them in public. As the cigar smoke rose in the
January winter air, the people of the city grew furious. They attacked the cigar-smoking
soldiers with insults, blows and rocks. “Go back where you came from!” they shouted.
The Austrian soldiers drew their swords and fought back. It was another bloody revolt.
Manila cigars were a big source of income for the Austrians who ruled Lombardy. They
imported it from Spain, which got it from the Philippines. But the cigar was a hated
symbol of foreign rule to the Italians. Almost overnight, the cigar became a symbol of
Italian nationalism. It was 1848, and things would change.
Angpagsiklab ng pag-aalsa ng mga Italians labansamgasundalong Austrian ay
nagmulasa Manila cigars, noongnagalitngaangmgataodahilsausoknadulotnito.
Inatakenilaangmgaitosapamamagitan ng pagpalo at paghagis ng mgabato kung
kaya’tnagingsanhiitoupangpumalagangmga Austrian souldiers at
nauwisamadugonghimagsikan.
Ang manila cigars ay isangpangunahingpinagkukunan ng malakingkita para samga
Austrian, at nagingsimbolo ng Italian nationalism.
Italian Disunity.
By the 1800s, Italy was, no longer the Roman Empire; it was just a place of many
disunited cities and states. But to millions living in the Italian Peninsula, Italy was more
than just a place. They remembered the glorious days of their nation as the Roman
Empire and the time when Italian city-states in the Mediterranean had given birth to the
Renaissance. As one patriot said, they wanted “a new Italy, a united Italy, and an Italy of
Italians.” Hence, the foreigners had to go.
But the difficulty was that Italy was broken up under different foreign rulers. After the
Congress of Vienna, most of Italy came under foreign control. Austria ruled two states
directly; Austrian nobles ruled other states; and the Spanish Bourbon family got the
TwoSicilies.
Sapagsapit ng 1800s, ang Italy ay hindinaisangimperyo. Pagkatapos ng middle ages
ay angpagsilang ng Renaissance. Sa period naito, inaasahannilaangpagkakaroon ng
bagongItalyana kung saanmagkakaroon ng pagkakaisaangbansangito.
Ngunitangkaramihansa states or lugar ng bansang Italy ay

12. napasailalimsapamumuno ng mgadayuhannanagingsanhi ng pagkakaroon ng
maliliit at magkakahiwalayna states.
Italian nationalists struggled for freedom and unity throughout the 1830s and 1840s. In
1831, a nationalist leader, Giuseppe Mazzini, organized a secret society called “Young
Italy.” Over 50,000 members joined quickly. Mazzini wanted a republic but cooperated
with the twoother patriots for the sake of unity.
Other nationalists favored a kingdom. Count Camilo Cavour of Sardinia led this group.
He.founded the ‘Il Risorgimento (reawakening), a newspaper to awaken national
consciousness of Italians. The first steps of unity came when the king of Sardinia, Victor
Emmanuel, made Cavour his prime minister in 1852. Through many wars to oust
foreign control, Italy became united between 1858 and 1870.
Saloob ng 1830s and 1840s, angmga Italians ay ipinaglalabanangkanilang freedom at
unity. Kaya noong 1831, nagtatag ng isang organization namasagisagnanagsikap
para saliberasyon ng Italy mulasa Austria natinawagna “Young Italy”. Ito ay
itinatagni Giuseppe Mazzini namadalasnatinutukoyna "soul of Italian unification"
dahilsiya ng nagbigay ng inspirasyon at ng vision para saisangnagkakaisang Italy.
Angibangsamahan ay naitatag din sapamumunoni Count Camilo Cavour of Sardinia,
isasapinakaprominent leader nanakipaglaban para sapagkakaisa ng Italy.
Siya ay kinilalabilang "Brain of Italian Unification". Isa naditoang Il Risorgimento, it
was an ideological and literary movement that helped to arouse the national
consciousness of the Italian people, and it led to a series of political events that freed
the Italian states from foreign domination and united them politically. At saloob ng
maraminglabanannabunsod ng damdamingmakabayan, nakamtannilaangtagumpay
at nagkaroon ng pagkakaisa.
GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
Switzerland is a small confederation in the Alps. It developed democracy as early as the
16th century. The Swiss love of freedom is seen in the story of Wilhelm Tell, who saved
his son from a tyrant by his expert skill in bow and arrow. Isolated from the Big Powers
by its geography, with many languages and ethnic groups, and differing major religions
(Catholics and Protestants), the practical Swiss established a stable republic in 1848.
Because they were surrounded by strong nations, the Swiss chose a unique path to keep
out foreign invasion — they maintained a strong citizen army and a foreign policy of
neutrality in international conflicts. Every Swiss citizen was obliged to train for military
duty or civic duty. History and civic obligations became an essential part of Swiss
education. Tokeep its people happy, the Swiss adopted a democratic life for its citizens.
Tokeep the government simple, the officials were few and not corrupt.
The Confederation continued to grow throughout the centuries until its current
borders were set. The federal constitution was created in 1848, founding the federal
parliament and giving central government certain powers. Ang Switzerland din daw
ay isasapinakakilalasasistema ng democracy. Kilalabilang direct democracy, ito ay
isang legal framework nanagbibigay-daansalahat ng Swizz citizens nahigitsaedadna
18 nabumotosa kung paanopapangasiwaanangkanilangbansa. Another thing is
Switzerland is known worldwide for its international neutrality. But that neutrality
has been fiercely defended over the years, particularly during the two World Wars. So,
upangmapanatiliangisang fighting force, anglahat ng mgakalalakihan ay required to
do military service.
The Swiss became known not only for their neutrality and small industries, but also for
their helpfulness to others. In 1863, Henri Dunant established the International Red

13. Cross, a humanitarian organization to reduce suffering during wars and natural
calamities. Dunant was concerned with the lack of medical and humanitarian aid for
war casualties and. civilians. The following year, the first of many humanitarian
agreements was signed in Genevatoprovide for protection for those helping casualties
or civilians in war or emergencies. Since then, Red Cross chapters were created in
almost all countries of the world, including the Philippines.
Ang Swiss ay nakilala din sakanilangpagigingmatulunginsaiba. Noong 1863,
itinatagni Henri Dunant, isang Swiss humanitarian ang International Red Cross to
ensure humanitarian protection and assistance for victims of war and other situations
of violence. Si Dunant din ang key proponent of the Geneva Conventions.
Being among the first European nations to adopt universal male suffrage, the Swiss
organized a Swiss federal parliament. In addition, they also adopted two democratic
principles in legislation — (1) referendum, in which any measure passed upon or
proposed by the legislature had to be submitted to the people for approval; and (2)
initiative, in which citizens themselves make legislation, without the need for a
legislature.
Democracy also flourished for Belgium and Scandinavia. As early as 1907, Norway gave
women the right to vote. It was the first European country to grant female suffrage.
Kabilang din silasamgaunangbansasa Europe na nag-adopt ng universal male
suffrage, a form of voting rights in which all adult male citizens within a political
system are allowed to vote, regardless of any other qualification, nag-organized ng
isang federal parliament at nag-adopt sadalawanguri ng democratic principles in
legislation which are the referenderum and initiative. Kapagsinabing referendum, it is
proposed by the legislature and submitted to the people for approval at kapagnaman
initiative, dito ay citizensmismoangnagawa ng batas. Ang democracy ay gumanap or
ipinatupad din sa Belgium and Scandinavia. At noong 1907, Norway was the first
European country to give women the right to vote.
DESPOTISM IN RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA
Before anything else, let’s first define the word despotism. Despotism is a form of
government to which a single entity rules with absolute power. Yung entity na yun
may be an individual as in autocracy or it may be group katulad ng oligarchy.
In other words, despotism is a way in which the power is exercised in a cruel and
oppressive way.
Etymologically speaking, despot comes from Greek word despotes which roughly
means “master” or one with power.
It was used to describe the unlimited power and authority of the Pharaohs of Egypt
and in the Byzantine court as title of nobility.
Despotism survived in two European monarchies
Significantly, it would be in these two countries that great conflicts would begin. Austria
would ignite the First World War, and Russia would become entangled in a bloody 1917
workers revolution.
Sinabi diyan na nagsurvive ang despotism in Austria and Russia. No wonder because
dito nagsimula ang great conflicts. If you can still remember, na ang naging
immediate cause of World War I at kung bakit nagkaroon ng alliances, imperialism,

14. militarism and nationalism is because na-assassinate si Archduke Franz Ferdinand of
Austria (ruler of Austria) on June 28, 1914 ng Serbian nationalist terrorist group na
tinatawag na Black Hand. Because of that, Austria-Hungary ay nagdeclare ng war on
Serbia na naging simula nung World War I.
Russia naman ay nagkaroon ng bloody 1917 workers revolution. To be exact, ito ay
nangyari noong November 6 and 7, 1917 pero sa Julian Calendar ay October 24 at 25
kaya tinawag itong October Revolution. The revolutionaries ay pinamununan ng
Bolshevik Party Leader Vladimir Lenin na nag-launch ng coup d’etat against sa
Duma’s provisional government. Yung Duma’s provisional government na ito ang
nag-oorganize ng elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention.
Kasi itong duma’s provisional government is ruled and assembled by Russia’s
bourgeois capitalist class so Lenin, the leader called for a Soviet Gov’t that would be
ruled directly by councils of soldiers, peasants and workers. As a result, Lenin became
the dictator of the world’s first communist state.
POVERTY AND DESPOTISM IN RUSSIA
The pillars of Russian wealth were farmers and the peasant serfs. But both were
neglected. Feudalism lived longest in Russia which had the most number of feudal serfs.
When other European nations had ended slavery and feudalism, 40 million serfs still
lived in Russia, as if it was Dark Ages.
Sinasabi diyan na the pillars of Russian wealth were farmers and the peasant serfs
because before industrialization began to emerge in Russia, Russia was primarily an
agrarian country. May pagkakatulad kasi ang history ng United States and Russian
History kasi nung 1861, the same year that Civil War begin, two years before the
Emancipation proclamation, the emperor of Russia, Alexander II, issued a decree that
cancelled the institution of Russian serfdom. Like the United States, before
industrialization, Russian was primarily agrarian country and its agricultural
peasantry constituted 40 and 50 percent of the whole country.
Serfs were not imported from abroad like slaves in US kasi Russian serfs were
ethnically Russian. Peasants families had been instituted by Russia’s first emperor
Peter the Great as part of his campaign of economic and political reforms.
The Russian serfs were permanently attached to the land and could be sold along
with the land, or used as servants. Owners could force them to work in factories and pay
them at all. Runaway serfs risked brutal punishment. In 1861, the czar emancipated the
serfs. But that was only on paper; the serfs were deep in debt and little changed for
them. Naturally, the serfs were indolent and made bad workers. At the same time, many
landowners were bad managers. As long as they had the serfs, they did not introduce
better farming methods. Russia remained a poor, agricultural country.
Yung mga Russian serfs ay kumbaga nagtratrabaho sila day by day sa lupa ng
kanilang mga landlords. Minsan pa nga ay pwersahan silang pinagtratrabaho ng
amo nila sa factory. Yung mga nagtatangkang tumakas naman ay napaparusahan ng
brutal. However, naabolished yung concept of serfdom noong 1861 because of
Alexander II. Tinatawag si Alexander II na czar liberator dahil he emancipated or
pinalaya niya yung serfs through his decree entitled Emancipation Manifesto na
binubuo ng 17 legislative acts. Alexander II (1818-1881) was emperor of Russia from
1855 to 1881. His reign ay naging famous in Russian history as the "era of great
reforms.“
As a result, the emancipation law of 1861, ay nakapagpalaya ng more than 40 million
serfs, and has been called the greatest single legislative act in history. It was a moral
stimulus to peasant self-dignity. Pero still marami pa ring naging problema. Kasi
baon pa din sa utang ang mga serfs and at the same time, yung mga landowners pa

15. din ay bad managers. Hangga’t may serfs silang inaasahan, hindi na naghanap ang
mga Russians ng way for better farming methods kayat naging mahirap pa din ang
Russia.
Trivia: Czar- Russian word for ruler and emperor. Specifically : the ruler of Russia
until the 1917 revolution
The Enlightenment made little impression on the Russian rulers. They dabbed in
it but did not want to change. By the mid-1880s, the Russian Empire was the biggest
empire in Europe. It sprawled from Europe to the Pacific Ocean. But the economic and
political system was as repressive as ever since the days of the first czars. The Mongol
rules of Russia destroyed existed in it. Those who spoke out for freedom and natural
rights faced severe punishment, exile to Siberia, or death.
Noong 1895 nga, ang Russian Empire ang naging pinakamalawak na empire na
umabot sa 8.9 million square miles. Because of its influence , Malaki ang naging
bahagi nito sa pagpigil at pagtigil kay Napoleon sa pananakop sa Europe. Pero
katulad nung pamumuno ng mga czars, naging malupit din ang mga ito. Sinakop kasi
dati ng Mongolians ang Russians and nagdemand sila ng complete obedience and
massive amounts of tribute and tax pero Russian break from Mongol rule sa
pamamagitan ni Ivan III matapos maipanalo ang battle over the Great Horde and
yun is cited cited as the restoration of Russian independence 240 years after the fall of
Kiev to Mongols' invasion.
Because of its vast size, the Russian Empire had many ethnic minorities,
including Ukrainians, Finns, Poles and Jews. Many of these people opposed Russian
rule. A policy to use Russian language and convert to the Russian Orthodox religion did
not go down well with these minorities. The Jews became a special target. Government
troops organized pogroms or violent raids on Jewish communities. The persecution in
the 19th century drove hundreds of thousands of Jews out of Russia. Many migrated to
the United States.
Yung mga ethnic minorities nga ay opposed dun sa Russian rule precisely because
nagkaroon ng tinatawag na Russification na kung saan ito ay form ng cultural
assimilation na yung mga non-Russian communities ay igigive up yung kanilang
culture and language in favor of the Russian one. So yung mga Jews ang naging
special target at naging recipient sila nung pogrom na tinatawag. Isa siyang
organized official violence against a group of people for religious or racial reasons, in
particular nga ay sa Jewish people. Nagsimula ito sa pagkaassasinate kay Czar
Alexander II in 1881 kasi kahit hindi Jew ang assassin at isa lagng ang Jew na
associated dun sa crime na yun, Russian mobs in more than 200 cities and towns
attack Jews and destroy their property.
By 1900, industrialization reached Russia because it was the fourth largest iron
producer in the world. The number of industrial workers had reached 2 million. But bad
treatment caused many violent workers strikes.
Di ba nung 1800’s ang economy of Russia ay nakafocus lang sa agriculture and
natural resources lang. Nagbago ito through the effort of Sergie Witte who
championed or proposed policies na nakapagproduce ng rapid industrialization
across Russia. Noong 1889 nga, itong si Witte was placed in charge of the Russian
railway system and siya ang tumingin at nagplano ng construction of Trans-Siberian
Railway. Naging involved din siya sa mga currency reform and infrastructure
programs including new railways, telegraph lines and electrical plants. Aside from the
fact that Russia became the fourth largest iron producer in the world, they also
became the world fourth-largest producer of steel and second-largest source of

16. petroleum. Naging 2 million din ang total of industrial workers but the condition nung
mga Russian industrial workers were so difficult. They were exploited and poorly
treated. They lived in unhygienic and dangerous crowded houses. Ang kinakain nila
ay mga panis na tinapay so hindi nila kinaya yun kaya nagstrikes sila or labor strike.
After 1905, the czar made symbolic reforms due to a bloody workers revolt, which
killed 1000 people. The czar treated a parliament called the duma, to which
representatives were elected. However, the duma really had no powers, and seldom met.
Russia’s problems remained unsolved and became the seeds for a future revolution that
would shake the world.
The Russian Revolution of 1905 was a wave of mass political and social unrest
that spread through vast areas of the Russian Empire, some of which was directed at
the government. It included worker strikes, peasant unrest, and military mutinies and
led to constitutional reform, including the establishment of the State Duma, the multi-
party system, and the Russian Constitution of 1906.
Duma, or yung state assembly is an elected legislative body that, along with the State
Council, constituted the imperial Russian legislature from 1906 until its dissolution at
the time of the March 1917 Revolution. Ito kasiang naging resulta noong 1905
revolution. The Duma was established by Tsar Nicholas II in his October
Manifesto (October 30, 1905), which promised that it would be a
representative assembly and that its approval would be necessary for the enactment of
legislation
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-russian-
revolution/
NATIONAL UNREST IN AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
“My people are strangers to one another,’ the Austrian emperor once said, “And it is for
the best.” By that, he meant that his rule could not be challenged because the people
under him could not unite, like the people in other European countries. Despotic rulers
often want to divide their subjects, in the classic “divide-and-conquer” political strategy.
Kapag sinabi nating unrest, a state of dissatisfaction, disturbance, and agitation in a
group of people, typically involving public demonstrations or disorder.
Divide and rule (Latin: divide et impera), or divide and conquer, in politics and
sociology is gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of
power into pieces that individually have less power than the one implementing the
strategy. Yung mga despotic rulers, mas gusto nila na di magkakasundo ang
subordinates nila.
The divide-and-conquer paradigm is often used to find an optimal solution of a
problem. Its basic idea is to decompose a given problem into two or more similar, but
simpler, subproblems, to solve them in turn, and to compose their solutions to solve the
given problem.
The Austrian Empire included more than 12 different national groups. The
Germans of Austria and the Magyars of Hungary were the two largest groups. The other
major nationals included the Poles, Czechs, Rumanians, and the Greeks, Bosnians,
Serbians, Croatians, and Slovaks in the Balkans. Each national group had a strong sense
of pride in its language and customs. The Austrian rulers had crushed the nationalist
revolts of 1830 and 1848. But the unrest continued. This unrest would trigger World
War One later on.
Austrian Empire is third most populous empire after the Russian Empire and United
Kingdom in Europe. So yun nga ang Austrian Empire is composed of Germans,

17. Hungarians, Czechs and Moravians, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenes, Slovenes, Serbs and
Croats, Bulgarians, Romanians, and Italians. Germans of Austria and Magyars of
Hungary nga ang two largest groups. Each group na iyon ay may language and
culture.
Magyars or Hungarians[2] are an ethnic group primarily associated
with Hungary. Sila yung main inhabitants of the Kingdom of Hungary that existed
through most of the second millennium. Magyars became minority inhabitants
of Romania, Slovakia, Serbia, and Ukraine
The Austrian Empire was very large in 1848, and filled with around a dozen
ethnicities, each with its own language. In some areas, certain ethnic groups
dominated, while in other areas, other groups dominated.
Austria itself had a German majority, while the Magyars were the predominant
ethnicity in Hungary.
Czechs dominated Bohemia, and various groups of Slavs made up most of the
remaining population of the Empire.
FRANZJOSEF
Austrian emperor for a long time (1848-1916), and held on to his despotic ways. But to
reward the Magyars after they helped Austria in the war with Prussia, he gave them
autonomy. In 1867, Hungary got its own king, who remained under the Austrian Empire
in a dual monarchy.
Franz Joseph, also called Francis Joseph, (born August 18, 1830, Schloss
Schönbrunn, near Vienna, Austria—died November 21, 1916, Schloss Schönbrunn),
emperor of Austria (1848–1916) and king of Hungary (1867–1916), who divided his
empire into the Dual Monarchy, in which Austria and Hungary coexisted as equal
partners. In 1879 he formed an alliance with Prussian-led Germany, and in 1914 his
ultimatum to Serbia led Austria and Germany into World War I.
Ang motto niya ay viribus unitis o English translation ay with united forces. He
ascended the throne of the Austrian Empire 1848. His concept of rulership was
informed by a great sense of duty and mission. After the upheavals of the 1848
revolution he endeavoured to re-establish the legitimacy of monarchical rule and to
hold together the multinational state that was threatening to break apart. He was
forced to make far-reaching concessions, notably in the creation of the dual monarchy
through the Compromise with Hungary in 1867 and in consenting to a constitution.
The dual monarchy pleased the Magyars, because at least they had some say in
their own nation. But the other nationalities became resentful. After all, the Austrians
were only a minority in the empire, and the Magyars were a minority, too. They
questioned why they ruled over the other nationalities. The other nationalities caused
major problems, especially in the Balkans.
The Compromise of 1867 ay nag-established ng Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
na tinawag ding Austro-Hungarian Empire). The two parts of the empire (o yung
Austria and Hungary) were united by a common ruler (Franz Josef) , by a joint
foreign policy, and, to some extent, by shared finances. Pero meron silang own
parlianment administration and judicial system. Nagustuhan naman ito ng mg
Magyars pero hindi ng ibang nationalities. Kasi yung mga nationalities tulad ng
Czechs, Poles, and other nationalities had some influence in government, they were
never permitted to share political power. Nagcollapse yung dual monarchy kasi hindi
nagkasundo yung mga nationalities.

18. Balkans comprise the areas of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia,
Greece, Bulgaria and Romania.
Democracy made little headway in the Austrian Empire because the government and
economy remained in the hands of wealthy nobles, who were highly conservative. Over a
million poor people subsisted on less than a few square meters of farm lands, which
were owned by only a few hundred nobles.
Democracy was not practice talaga in Austrian Empire because ang pamahalaan at
ekonomiya ay nanatili sa kamay ng mga mayayamang tao, na lubos na konserbatibo.
Mahigit isang milyong mahihirap na tao ang nagsubsob sa mas mababa sa ilang
square square ng mga lupang sakahan, na pag-aari ng ilang daang mga maharlika
lamang.
Universal male suffrage was introduced in 1907 but few males were educated enough.
When the parliaments met, the various national groups could not agree on anything.
Sometimes, the members ended up throwing inkwells at one another, instead of
debating proposed laws. Their quarrels pleased the royal class who ruled over them
easily.
Dahil nga dun sa accelerating urbanization after 1880, nagkaroon ng
increased state administration and politicaization kaya nagbigay daan sa
universal male suffrafe noong 1907. As defined, Universal manhood
suffrage is a form of voting rights in which all adult male citizens within a political
system are allowed to vote, regardless of income, property, religion, race, or any other
qualification. It is sometimes summarized by the slogan, "one man, one vote“Bagama’t
ipinakilala ito noong 1907, iilang mga lalaki ang sapat na may edukasyon. Dahil dun
hindi nagkaroon ng unawaan. Walang napapag-uusapan at walang natatalay na
batas. Unlike na ibang hari na awyaw ng conflict, nagustuhan ito ng mga royal class
daghil madali nila itong mapapamunuan.