Nationalism emerged in 19th century Europe and led to the establishment of nation-states in place of multi-national empires. French revolutionaries promoted French nationalism through symbols like the flag and language. Liberal nationalism promoted individual freedom and representative government but excluded many groups. After 1815 conservative forces sought to preserve traditional institutions. Nationalist movements in places like Germany and Italy led to the unification of those countries, often through warfare. The rise of romanticism in the 1800s fostered national identity through folk culture. Economic hardship fueled popular revolts with nationalist overtones. By 1900, European imperialism and nationalism interacted in complex ways around the world.

1. The Rise of
Nationalism
in Europe
Vinod Kumar
Socialscience4u.blogspot.com

3. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about
sweeping changes in the political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these
changes was the emergence of the nation state in place of the multi-national dynastic
empires of Europe. The concept and practices of a modern state, in which a
centralised power exercise sovereign control over a clearly defined territory, had been
developed over a long period of time in Europe. The end result of these changes was
the emergence of the nation-state in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of
Europe. The concept and practices of a modern state, in which a centralsied power
exercised sovereign control over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over
a long period of time in Europe. But a nation-state was one in which the majority of its
citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a sense of common identity and
shared history or descent. This commonness did not exist from time immemorial; it
was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people.
This chapter will look at the diverse processes through which nation-states and
nationalism came into being in nineteenth-century Europe.

4. The French Revolution and the Idea of the
Nation
Steps taken by French Revolutionaries -
Ideas of La patrie and Le citoyen, new French Flag,
Estates General was elected and renamed National
Assembly, new hymns, oaths taken, centralized
administration system, uniform system of weights and
measures were introduced, regional dialects were
discouraged and French became the common
language. With the outbreak of the revolutionary wars,
the French armies began to carry the idea of
nationalism abroad.

5. Civil code of 1804/Napoleonic code
Equality before the law was established, it secured the right to property, it simplified
administrative measures, abolished feudal system, freed peasants from serfdom and
manorial dues, guild restrictions were removed, transport and communication systems
were improved.
Criticism of Civil code of 1804/Napoleonic code
Initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility because Napoleon took away political freedom,
increased taxes , imposed censorship and forced people to join French army.

6. The Making of Nationalism in Europe
“Habsburg Empire was a patchwork of many different regions and Peoples”.
Different people residing at different areas spoke different languages. In Alpine and
Bohemia region people spoke German language, in Lombardy and Venetia – Italian
language, Hungary half of the population spoke Magyar other half spoke variety of
dialects, in Galicia people spoke Polish. Other then these there also lived a mass of
subject peasant peoples. Such differences did not easily promote a sense of political
unity.

7. The Aristocracy and the New
Middle Class
Aristocracy – Lived a common way
of life, owned estates and town
houses, spoke French connected
by ties of marriages, numerically a
small group.
Peasantry – majority of population
Middle class – With the growth of
towns and emergence of
commercial classes, new social
groups came into being, these were
smaller in number, among the
educated liberal middle classes the
ideas of nationality gained
popularity.

8. What did Liberal Nationalism Stand for ?
Liberalism stood for freedom for the individual and equality for all before the law, the
end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and representative government
through parliament.
Drawback – Equality before law did not necessarily stood for everyone, right of vote
was get elected was granted only to property owning men, it reduced women to the
status of a minor.
In the economic sphere liberalism stood for the freedom of markets and the abolition of
state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital. This was a difficult
task as each state possessed its own currency and weights and measures.
Zollverein – It abolished tariff barriers, reduced the number of currencies to two, and
promoted a network of railways to stimulate mobility.

9. A New Conservatism after 1815
Believed that established traditional institutions of state and society- monarchy, the
Church, social hierarchies, property and the family - should be preserved, Did not
propose a return to the society of pre-revolutionary days, but wanted to continue with the
changes initiated by Napoleon.
Treaty of Vienna (1815) – Hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Matternich, with the
object of undoing most of the changes that had come about in Europe during the
Napoleonic wars. Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France, a series of states
created on the French boundary, German confederation was left untouched, main
intentions was to restore the monarchies that had been overthrown by Napoleon.

10. The Revolutionaries
A commitment to oppose monarchial forms, and to fight for liberty and freedom, saw the
creation of nation –states as a necessary part of this struggle for freedom.
Giuseppe Mazzini – Born in Genoa in 1807, became a member of the secret society of
Carbonari, attempted a revolution in Liguria, founded Young Italy in Marseilles, Young
Europe in Berne. He believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of
mankind. So Italy could not continue to be a patchwork of small states and kingdoms. It
had to be forged into a single unified republic within a wider alliance of nations. Following
his model, secret societies were set up in other parts of Europe also. Matternich
described his as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

11. The Age of Revolution
First Upheaval took place in France in July 1830. Bourbon kings who had been restored
to power during the conservative reaction after 1815, were overthrown and a
constitutional monarchy was established with Louis Philippes at its head.
The July Revolution sparked an uprising in Brussels which led to Belgium breaking away
from the United kingdoms of the Netherlands.
Greece which had been a part of the Ottomon Empire since the fifteenth century,
struggled for independence. Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living
in exile and also from many West Europeans. Poets and artists lauded Greece as the
cradle of European Civilisation and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle
against a Muslim Empire. Lord Byron organized funds and went for the war, where he
died of fever in 1824. The treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an
independent nation.

12. The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
A cultural movement which sought to develop a particular
form of nationalist sentiment, criticized the glorification of
reason and science and focused instead on emotions,
intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a
sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural
past, as the basis of a nation.
German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that
true German culture was to be discovered among the
common people –das volk. It was through folk songs, folk
poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation
(volksgiest) was popularised..
Poland no longer existed as an independent territory,
national feelings were kept alive through music and
language. Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle
through his operas and music.
The clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon
of national resistance. Polish was used for Church
gatherings and all religious instruction. A large number of
priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by
the Russian authorities. The use of Polish came to be
seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian
dominance.
Johann Gottfried Herder
Karol Kurpinski

13. Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt
The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. Enormous increase in
Population resulted in more seekers of jobs than employment. Small producers faced stiff
competition from imports of cheap machine made goods. Aristocracy still enjoyed power,
peasants struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations. The rise of food
prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.
In 1848, food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the Population of Paris
out on the roads, Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a
Republic granted suffrage to all adult males above 21 and guaranteed the right to work.
National workshops to provide employment were set up..

14. In 1845, weavers in Silesia led a
revolt against contractors who
supplied them raw material and
gave them orders for finished
textiles but drastically reduced
their payments. A large crowd of
weavers emerged from their
homes, marched up to the
mansion of their contractor,
when treated with scorn and
threats, they forced their way
into the house, broke into the
storehouse and plundered it of
supplies of cloth. The contractor
fled with his family, returned 24
hours later having requisitioned
the army. In the exchange that
followed, eleven weavers were
shot..

15. 1848 : The Revolution of the Liberals
Events of February 1848 in France had brought about the abduction of the monarch
and a republic based on universal male suffrage had been proclaimed. In other parts of
Europe where independent nation-states did not yet exist men and women of the liberal
middle classes combined their demands for constitutionalism with national unification.
Frankfurt Parliament – Members of political association’s elected 831 representatives,
on 18 May 1848 these representatives took their places in the Frankfurt Parliament
convened in the Church of St. Paul and drafted a Constitution for a German nation. It
was opposed by King of Prussia as well as it lost its social basis (no rights were given
to workers and women). It forced the autocratic monarchs to introduce some changes
serfdom and bonded labour was abolished in the Habsburg dominions and in Russia,
Hungarians were granted more autonomy.

16. Making of Germany and Italy
Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation ?
Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister,
Otto Van Bismarck , was the architect of this process carried out with the help of Prussian
army and bureaucracy. Three war over seven years ended in Prussian victory and
completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William Iwas
proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles. The new state placed a
strong emphasis on modernising the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in
Germany. Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of
Germany.

17. Italy Unified
Italy was divided into seven states of which only Sardinia Piedmont was ruled by an
Italian Princely state. Even the italian language had not acquired one common form and
still had many regional and local variations. During the 1830s. Giuseppe Mazzini had
sought to put together a coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. Failure of
revolutionary uprisings meant that the mantle fell on Sardinia-Piedmont under its ruler
King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian states through war. Chief Minister Cavour led
the movement,. Through a tactful diplomatic allaince with France, Sardinia-Piedmont
succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. A large number of armed volunteers
under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the. In 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was
proclaimed king of united Italy.

18. The Strange Case of Britain
In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution. The Primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were
ethnic ones –such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. The Act of Union 1707 resulted in
the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. Scotland’s distinctive culture and
political institutions were systematically suppressed. The English helped the Protestants
of Ireland to establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic revolts
against British dominance were suppressed. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the
United Kingdom in 1801. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (Union Jack),
the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), the English language were actively
promoted.

19. Visualizing the Nation
Artists in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries represented a country as if it were a
person. Nations were then portrayed as female figures. The female form that was
chosen to personify the nation did not stand for any particular woman in real life; rather it
sought to give the abstract idea of the nation a concrete form. That is, the female figure
became an allegory of the nation. During the French Revolution artists used the Female
allegory to portray ideas such as Liberty, Justice and the Republic. In France the
Allegory was christened Matianne, which underlined the idea of a people’s nation. Her
characterstics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic – the red cap, the
tricolour, the cockade. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps. Germania
became the allegory of the German nation. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves, as
the German oak stands for heroism.

20. NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM
By the last quarter of the nineteenth century nationalism no longer retained its idealistic
liberal-democratic sentiment of the first half of the century, but became a narrow creed
with limited ends. The major European powers, manipulated the nationalist aspirations of
the subject peoples in Europe to further their own imperialist aims.

21. Balkans led to the First World War
Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation was under the control of the
Ottoman Empire. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman
Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the
disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. The Balkan states
were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense
of each other. During this period, there was intensive rivalry among the European
powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military might. These rivalries were
very evident in the way the Balkan problem unfolded. This led to a series of wars in the
region and finally the First World War.

22. The Anti-imperial movements that developed everywhere were nationalist, in the sense
that they all struggled to form independent nation-states, and were inspired by a sense
of collective national unity, forged in confrontation with imperialism. European ideas of
nationalism were nowhere replicated, for people everywhere developed their own
specific variety of nationalism. But the idea that societies should be organised into
‘nation-states’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.