Slideshow is a companion to Gardner's Art Through the Ages (Global) textbooks. Prepared for ART 102 at Montgomery County Community College. Jean Thobaben - Adjunct Instructor

1. LATER RENAISSANCE IN THE NORTH
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
ART 102 Gardners - Chapter 23
Jean Thobaben
Instructor
The Age of Reformation:
16th-Century Art in Northern Europe and Spain
Northern European Renaissance
A GERMAN RENAISSANCE
RENAISSANCE IN THE NETHERLANDS
A Spanish Renaissance

2. 2
The Protestant Reformation
• The dissolution of the Burgundian Netherlands in 1477 led to a
realignment in the European geopolitical landscape in the early
16th century.
• France and the Holy Roman Empire expanded their territories,
and Spain eventually became the dominant power in Europe.
• Attempts to reform the Church led to the Reformation and the
establishment of Protestantism, which in turn prompted the
Catholic Counter-Reformation.

3. 3
• The Reformation grew out of dissatisfaction with Church leadership and the
perception that popes and upper-level clergy were too concerned with
temporal power and material wealth.
• Dissatisfaction with the Church
led to Martin Luther
issuing his 95 Theses, in which
he listed objections to Church
practices.
• Because the Scriptures were
open to different
interpretations, differences
arose among the various
Protestant reformers.
Right: Period print of Martin Luther

4. 4
• Northern humanists, such
as Desiderius Erasmus
and Thomas More,
attempted to reconcile
humanism with Christianity.
Portrait of Erasmus of
Rotterdam by Quentin Massys
1517, Oil on panel, transferred to
canvas, 59 x 46,5 cm, Galleria
Nazionale d'Arte Antica,
Rome.

5. 5
• Catholics and Protestants differed on the role of
visual imagery in religion.
• Catholics embraced church decoration as an aid
to communicating with God, whereas
• Protestants believed such imagery could lead to
idolatry and distracted viewers from communicating directly with
God.
• Because of this, Protestant churches were relatively bare.
However, Protestants did use art, and especially prints, as a
teaching tool.

6. 6
Matthias Grünewald (c.1470-1480 - 1528)
• Besides Dürer, Grunewald is the most important representative
of Northern painting at the turn of the 16th century.
• One of the greatest German painters of his age, whose works
on religious themes achieve a visionary expressiveness through
intense colour and agitated line.
The first view of the altar:
L: Saint
Sebastian
R. Saint
Anthony
Center: The Crucifixion
Below:The
Entombment

7. 7
The first securely dated work
by Grünewald is the
Mocking of Christ of 1503,
seems to be that of a young
artist just become a master.
• This painting also
illustrates Grunewald’s
ability to infuse his
paintings with strong
emotions.
The Mocking of Christ. c.1503.
Oil and tempera on panel
Alte Pinakothek, Munich, Germany.

8. 8
• His major works include the Isenheim Altarpiece, which, was
executed for the hospital chapel of Saint Anthony's Monastery in
Isenheim in Alsace and is now at the Unterlinden Museum in
Colmar, a nearby town.
• It is a carved shrine with two sets of folding wings and three
views.

9. 9
The first, with the wings closed, is a Crucifixion showing a harrowingly
detailed, twisted, and bloody figure of Christ on the cross in the center
flanked, on the left, by the mourning Madonna being comforted by John the
Apostle, and Mary Magdalene kneeling with hands clasped in prayer, and, on
the right, by a standing John the Baptist pointing to the dying Savior.
At the feet of the Baptist is a lamb holding a cross, symbol of the "Lamb of
God" slaughtered for man's sins.
The drama of the scene, symbolizing the divine and human natures of Christ,
is heightened by the stark contrast between the vibrantly lit foreground and
the dark sky and bleak landscape of low mountains in the background.

10. 10
Crucifixion (central section /closed
wings). 1510-1515. Oil on panel.
Musée d'Unte-rlinden, Colmar,

11. 11
The Crucifixion. Detail.
Virgin Mary, St. John Evangelist
and St. Mary Magdalene.

12. 12
The Crucifixion.
Detail. St. John the Baptist.
Link to a virtual reality tour of the
church and altarpiece created to
celebrate the 500th anniversary.
• First, click on the commentary at
the bottom of the page.
• Next, click on the image on the left
for the video.

13. 13
• Another important clerical commission came from a canon in
Aschaffenburg, Heinrich Reitzmann.
• As early as 1513 he had asked Grünewald to paint an altar for
the Mariaschnee Chapel in the Church of SS. Peter and
Alexander in Aschaffenburg.

14. 14
• This painting was the
central panel of the
Altarpiece of Our Lady of
the Snow in the Abbey
Church at Aschaffenburg,
near Bad Mergentheim.
Grunewald, Stuppach Madonna, 1517-19,
Oil on canvas mounted on wood,
186 x 150 cm
Parish Church, Stuppach

15. 15
• This detail shows the flowers
in a bottle at the lower right
corner of the painting.

16. 16
• The next painting was
the right panel of the
same altarpiece.
• According to tradition, Pope Liberius
(pope from 352 to 366) and a patrician
had the same dream at the same night.
• The Virgin appeared and expressed her
wish to raise a church at the site which
she will mark by snow at the middle of
the summer.
• Next day the Esquiline hill was covered
by snow and it became the site of the
church of Santa Maria Maggiore.

17. 17
• This detail shows Pope
Liberius who, according
to tradition, established
the Santa Maria
Maggiore on the
Esquiline hill in Rome.
• This detail shows the
background of the painting.
• The palace at the left has no
wall and the dreaming pope
can be seen in his bedroom.
• At the steps of the palace the
patrician and his wife view the
Mother of God in snow-white
glory in the sky.
• On the right, in front of the
Lateran Palace people are
gathering, discussing the
miracle and forming a
procession.

18. 18
• Grünewald worked in
the court of the Bishop
of Mainz, and he
painted this panel to the
Bishop's Fond in Halle.
• Albert, the Bishop of
Brandenburg is pictured
as St Erasm on the
painting.
Meeting of St Erasm and St
Maurice,1517-23
Oil on wood, 226 x 176 cm
Alte Pinakothek, Munich
• This work exhibits the
theme of religious
discussion or debate, so
important to this period
of German art and
history.
• Grünewald's forms
become more massive
and compact, his colours
restrained but still vivid.

19. 19
• This detail
represents
St Erasm

20. 20
• This detail
represents
St Maurice.

21. 21
• Apparently because of his
sympathy with the
Peasants' Revolt of 1525,
Grünewald left Albrecht's
service in 1526.
• He spent the last two years
of his life visiting in
Frankfurt and Halle, cities
sympathetic to the newly
emerging Protestant cause.
• Grünewald's painterly
achievement remains one
of the most striking in the
history of northern
European art.
• His 10 or so paintings and
approximately 35 drawings
that survive have been
jealously guarded and
carefully scrutinized in
modern times.

22. 22
Head of a Shouting Man
c. 1520
Black chalk on
yellow-brownish paper,
244 x 200 mm
Staatliche Museen, Berlin

23. 23
Mary with the Sun below her
Feet
c. 1520
Black chalk on yellow-
brownish paper, partly covered
by yellow paint, 325 x 2268
mm
Museum Boymans-van
Beuningen, Rotterdam

24. 24
Lucas Cranach
the Elder (1472-1553)
• Though no document
attests it, the early
meeting between
Cranach and Dürer,
whose workshop in
Nuremberg enjoyed
great fame, was
unavoidable.
• Cranach had evidently
studied Dürer’s graphic
art intensively.

25. 25
• Cranach may have turned to designing woodcuts for the
monetary rewards involved, for they were much in demand in
Germany at the beginning of the sixteenth century.
• Even the greatest painters of the period contributed to the
illustration of books, and made single-sheet prints and series of
pictures of a religious character - often with imperial sponsorship.
• Dürer, Holbein, and Lucas van Leyden were among the more
famous painters who engaged in the production of prints.

26. 26
• Cranach was more
competent as a painter
than as a printmaker.
• Apparently he did not
find the medium a
congenial one; perhaps
he used it to satisfy
financial needs, or
because it was
considered a worthy and
lucrative profession by
the best artists of his
country.
• This scene of Adam and Eve in
the Garden is typical of his style -
of its virtues and defects.
• He had a tendency to overcrowd
his compositions, to overstress
secondary details, and to fail to
concentrate on the main theme.
• The central figures stand before
a huge tree, a somewhat
emaciated Adam is seated next
to a standing Eve, similar in
proportion and sexuality to Venus
and other goddesses who often
appear in Cranach's paintings.

27. 27
Lucas Cranach's Allegory of Law and Grace is a small woodcut print
produced after the Reformation began.
It shows the differences between Catholicism and Protestantism.

28. 28
• Cranach’s life was closely connected with
the life of the Saxon Electors.
• He accompanied Frederick the Wise on
his travels to Nuremberg, and to Trient on
the occasion of Maximilian I’s coronation.
• He carried out some delicate diplomatic
missions and took part in all important
events occurring at the court.
• He created numerous portrait of the
members of the Electors family and
members of the court.
Lucas Cranach the Elder.
Portrait of Henry the Devout of Saxony.
1514. Oil on wood.
Dresden Gallery, Dresden, Germany.

29. 29
• Cranach ran a large
workshop and worked with
great speed, producing
hundreds of works.
• Cranach's sons were both
artists, but the only one to
achieve distinction was
Lucas Cranach the Younger,
who was his father's pupil
and often his assistant.
• Cranach painted this
double portrait on the
occasion of the marriage
of the Viennese humanist
Johannes Cuspinian and
his wife Anna, daughter of
an official of the Emperor.
• Cranach composed these
portraits as a pair.

30. 30
A friend of Martin Luther,
Cranach depicted him
several times.
He became the
great portraitist
of the
Reformation
without, however,
committing himself
to any particular
confession.
Portrait of Martin Luther.
1525. Tempera on wood.
Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland

31. 31
Albrecht Dürer
(1471-1528)
• The well-traveled and
widely admired German
artist and printmaker
Albrecht Dürer acheived
international celebrity.
• He wrote theoretical
treatises on a variety of
subjects.
Albrecht Durer.
Self-Portrait at 28. 1500.
Oil on panel. Alte Pinakothek,
Munich, Germany.

32. 32
• Dürer made two trips to Italy, spending most of his time in
Venice.
• Of the Venetian artists, Dürer now most admired Giovanni Bellini,
the leading master of Venetian early Renaissance painting, who,
in his later works, completed the transition to the High
Renaissance.
• Dürer's pictures of men and women from this Venetian period
reflect the sweet, soft portrait types especially favoured by
Bellini.
• One of Dürer's most impressive small paintings of this period, a
compressed half-length composition of the Young Jesus with
the Doctors of 1506, harks back to Bellini's free adaptation of
Mantegna's Presentation in the Temple.

33. 33
• Dürer's work is a virtuoso performance that shows mastery and
close attention to detail.
• In the painting the inscription on the scrap of paper out of the
book held by the old man in the foreground reads, "Opus
quinque dierum" ("the work of five days").
• Dürer thus must have executed this painstaking display of
artistry, which required detailed drawings, in no more than five
days.

34. 34
Dürer's simple and straightforward woodcut of the
Last Supper alludes to Lutheran doctrine that the
sacrament of Communion was a commemorative event.

35. 35
• Dürer's interest in classical
ideas, as transmitted through
Italian Renaissance artists, is
seen in his engraving The
Fall of Man (Adam and Eve),
for which he studied the
Vitruvian theory of human
proportions.
• Adam and Eve are idealized
figures who otherwise stand
in a carefully observed
landscape with detailed
foliage and animals. The
animals are believed to be
symbolic references to the
four humors.
Adam and Eve, 1504,
Albrecht Dürer
Engraving; 9 7/8 x 7 7/8 in.

36. 36
• Dürer's finely detailed
engraving
Knight, Death, and
the Devil
is both idealized and
naturalistic.
Albrecht Dürer
Knight, Death and Devil, 1513
engraving on laid paper
9 3/4 x 7 1/2 in.)

37. 37
• To the same period
belongs Dürer's most
expressive portrait
drawing - one of his
mother.
• Two months before his mother's
death, Dürer recorded her
features in this famous drawing.
• The extreme naturalism of the
portrait is a reference to the hard
life the depicted woman had
endured, for she had suffered
from various illnesses and had
given birth to 18 children, only
three of which survived.
Portrait of the Artist's Mother, 1514
Charcoal drawing on paper,
421 x 303 mm, Staatliche Museen, Berlin

38. 38
• Dürer's Lutheran
sympathies are also
apparent in his engraved
portrait of the Protestant
scholar Philipp
Melanchthon.
Durer, Philipp Melanchthon, 1526.
Engraving, 6 7/8" x 5 1/16”
British Museum, London.

39. 39
• During his final years Dürer
endeavored to support
practice with theory.
• Since his first stay in
Venice, Dürer had worked
on the theory of the ideal
human proportions.
• Dürer linked the depiction of
body types with differing
proportions to the teaching
of the four humors, and as
such was the first to indicate
the connection between
build and character.
• The insights regarding
measure and numbers which
Dürer had gained from his
lifelong study of the ideal
proportions of the human
body was summarized in his
Four Books on Human
Proportions.
• The head was used as the
comparative yardstick for
measuring the other parts of
the body.
Side and frontal view of the female head
type 7, 1528
Woodcut, Staatsbibliothek, Bamberg

40. 40
• Dürer's precise
watercolor study of a
piece of turf is
scientifically accurate.
Durer, Albrecht
The Large Turf, 1503
Watercolor and gouache on paper
41 x 32 cm
Graphische Sammlung Albertina, Vienna.

41. 41
The Four Humors and “temperments”
• The humors are our ruling passions, derived from the original Latin
meaning of the word, which signified "liquid." In the 1600s, physicians
understood the four humors to signify patterns of speech, behavior and
other qualities that predominate in a human being.
• The physical attributes are: Choleric (ego/blood), sanguine (nervous
system/astral body), phlegmatic (etheric or life body), and melancholic
(physical body).
• The personalities associated with these life forces are: Sanguine,the
most common. temperament Today, they would be prized for their
extroverted and seemingly "happy go lucky" approach, but their lack of
depth can be a weakness in spirituality.

42. 42
• The phlegmatic can be extraordinary scholars with the unique ability to be
something approaching purely cognitive. Neither passion nor the need for
attention will cloud their judgment and speculation.
• The choleric's strength is zeal, his weakness anger. How he channels his
great personal conviction and power will be key to his spiritual life. The
choleric approach is never in half measure, and what he embraces as most
important in his life can make him the greatest of saints or the most
picturesque of sinners.
• The idealism of the melancholic, so centered in an awareness of divine
power, makes him the likely target for the devious. However great his
intelligence, the melancholic can be prey because if, for example, he
encounters deceit when he himself is focused on truth and honesty, it will
not occur to him that others do not have similar ideals.

43. 43
•Dürer conveyed Lutheran ideas
in his painting Four Apostles by
giving prominence to John the
Evangelist and by showing Peter
and John both reading from the
Bible.
•The personalities of the four men
are also meant to correspond with
the four temperments.
• Dürer also included
quotations from each of the
Four Apostles' books in the
German of Luther's
translation of the New
Testament on the frames
of each panel.
The Four Holy Men, 1526, Oil on panel,
Each panel 215 x 76 cm,
Alte Pinakothe, Munich

44. 44
The Four Holy Men (John
the Evangelist and Peter)
1526
Oil on panel, 215 x 76 cm
Alte Pinakothek, Munich
• This work marks his final
and certainly highest
achievement as a
painter.
• His delight in his own
virtuosity no longer
stifled the ideal of a
spaciousness that is
simple, yet deeply
expressive.
• The next detail shows
the head of St. Peter.

45. 45
• The next detail
shows the head of
St Mark.
The Four Holy Men (Mark
and Paul)
1526
Oil on panel, 215 x 76 cm
Alte Pinakothek, Munich

46. 46
Albrecht Altdorfer
(1480-1538)
• A German painter, engraver,
architect and leading member
of the ‘Danube School’ of
German painting.
• His most outstanding works
are biblical and historical
subjects set against highly
imaginative and atmospheric
landscape backgrounds.
Albrecht Altdorfer
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt 1510.
Oil on panel
StaatlicheMuseen
Berlin, Germany

47. 47
• He was the first
European artist to paint
a ‘pure’ landscape,
and in many of his
other paintings figure
and landscape merge
in such a way that the
scenic becomes the
background.
Albrecht Altdorfer
St. George, 1510
Oil on wood.
Alte Pinakothek, Munich, Germany

48. 48
• With a sentimental feel
and an intuitive
understanding of light
and color, Altdorfer
gave free rein to lyricism
in mythologies and
religious scenes, in
which the landscape
acquires an importance
never before equalled.
• Altdorfer lived in Regensburg.
• This steeply wooded stretch of
the Danube below the city,
with the castle of Worth,
appears in several Altdorfer
paintings.
Danubian Landscape, 1520-25
Parchment on wood,
30 x 22 cm, Alte Pinakothek, Munich

49. 49
• He was also the first to
paint a major battle
picture.
• The Battle of Issus
shows the defeat of
Darius in 333 B.C. by
Alexander the Great at
Arbela on the Issus
River.
• Seen from a bird's eye
view, the battle takes
place within a vast
panoramic landscape.
Alexander's Victory (The Battle at the
Issus). 1529. Oil tempera on wood. Alte
Pinakothek,
Munich, Germany

50. 50
• Next are close up
details of the painting.
The Battle of Alexander(detail) 1529
Wood, 158,4 x 120,3 cm
Alte Pinakothek, Munich

51. 51
Hans Holbein
the Younger (1497- 1543)
• Hans Holbein the Younger, son
of the painter Hans Holbein the
Elder, was both in education
and career, a cosmopolitan.
• He worked in Basel, Lucerne,
and Zurich from 1515 to 1526.
• From 1526 to 1528 he was in
London, but returned to Basel
for the next four years.
• From 1532 he was again in
London and died there of the
plague in 1543.
Self Portrait, c. 1542 , color chalk, pen and
gold , 32 cm (12.6 in). Width: 26 cm (10.2 in).
Ufizzi Galleria, Florence

52. 52
• Religious paintings form a significant part of the work Holbein
produced in Basel.
• From modest, private commissions in the period 1519-20
(e.g. the Man of Sorrows), through
The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb (1521).
Hans Holbein. The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb. 1521.
Oil on wood. Kunstmuseum Basel, Basel, Switzerland.

53. 53
• In his beautiful
Meyer Madonna, Holbein
incorporates portraits of the
Meyer family into the
foreground of the painting.
• Holbein began the painting
from sketches he made
before he left for England in
1526.
Hans Holbein.
Meyer Madonna. 1526.
Oil on wood.
Schlossmuseum, Darmstadt, Germany.

54. 54
• The presentation of the
Madonna and Child is a
triumph of illusionism that
ranks with the achievements
of Van Eyck in Flanders a
century before.
• The play of light over the
fluting of the architectural
shell behind the two figures
carves out the space into
which the delicately
shadowed crown, hair and
face of the Madonna are set.
• The twisting of the child's
body emphasizes the
weight the Madonna's arms
must carry, and Christ's
projecting feet and the
foreshortening of his own
and his mother's arms
stress the space his torso
occupies.
• The combination of warm
green and gold also brings
the Madonna forward
against the neutral tone of
the stonework.

55. 55
• In the portrait study, Anna Meyer is
shown seated, whereas here she is
kneeling.
• In the drawing she cannot be older
than 13-15, and given that the
parents were married in 1513,
Holbein must have been given the
commission for the Madonna panel
before he left for England in 1526.
• On his return, he revised the
picture, putting Anna's hair up and
tucking most of it under her chaplet.
Smaller changes were made to the
outline of her face, particularly to
make the girl look somewhat older.

56. 56
• Jakob Meyer's unusual
stipulation that the
artist include his
deceased first wife
Magdalene in the
painting was the result
of the death of Meyer's
two sons during
Holbein's first English
absence: he decided to
include all members of
his family, living and
dead, rather than
omit any individual.

57. 57
• Unlike Anna Meyer, the
figures of the boys are not
portraits, since they lack
any individual features.
• In his elegant face and
hands, the squatting youth
bears striking resemblance
to the Mary figure, which, in
contrast to the Solothurn
Madonna, is idealized in the
manner of the Raphael
model.
• The naked boy and the
Child Jesus also
correspond to figure types
found in Italian
Renaissance paintings, and
it is conceivable that
Holbein was inspired by
compositions by Raphael
and Leonardo that he had
seen on his trip to France.

58. 58

59. 59
• From 1528, he
concentrated solely on
portrait painting.
• In London he
executed the
Portrait of Georg
Gisze of Danzig
(1532), and soon came
to the notice of Henry
VIII and members of
his court.
Hans Holbein.
Portrait of Georg Gisze of Danzig.
1532. Oil on wood.
Staatliche Museen,
Berlin, Germany.

60. 60
• Holbein’s
observation of
detail,
psychological
penetration of his
sitters and superb
handling of color
made him the
greatest portrait
painter of German
art.
Hans Holbein.
Portrait of Sir Thomas
More. 1527. Oil on wood.
The Frick Collection,
New York.

61. 61
Hans Holbein.
The Ambassadors.
1533. Oil on wood.
National Gallery,
London.
Holbein’s
meticulously
painted double
portrait of the
humanist
French
Ambassadors
to England,
Jean de
Dinteville and
Georges de
Selve.

62. 62
• On our left stands Jean
de Dinteville, a French
nobleman posted to
London as ambassador.
• The globe on the bottom
shelf shows Polisy,
where he had his
château; the ornate
sheath of the dagger in
his right hand gives his
age as 29.
• The green backdrop and the
pink slashed shirt of the
diplomat add a zest which is
further enhanced by the
juxtaposition of different
textures of silk and woven
cloth.
• Like Titian, Holbein was an
assured painter of fur and
the contrast between the
soft ermine and the
glistening metal chain
serves as a rich textural
counterbalance.

63. 63
• On the upper shelf of the 'étagère' lie various astronomical
instruments.
• Behind Jean de Dinteville's arm is an astronomical globe, and
beside it are numerous instruments with which the date and time
can be determined: a cylindrical calendar, two quadrants (allowing
the height of the sun and their angle to the horizon to be
calculated), a ten-sided sun clock, and a torquetum, the most
valuable and complex clock among the items displayed.

64. 64
• As is often the case in Holbein's
portraits,the objects on the
shelves refer to the intellectual
interests and professional and
practical activities of the sitters.
• The instruments and books
displayed reflect the design of the
cupboard itself in that those on
the upper shelf would be used for
the study of the heavens and
heavenly bodies while the objects
on the lower shelf have more to
do with everyday worldly matters.
• The cumulative effect of the
objects is to demonstrate the
ambassadors' close
association to the scientific
and educational community
of the Renaissance, a
movement considered highly
"progressive" at the time.
• Although religious motifs are
present here, they are given
secondary status.

65. 65
• Besides this are two opened books, plus dividers, a lute
with a broken string, and a bag with wooden flutes.
• The arithmetical book has been identified as Peter
Apian's (1495-1552) book (A new and thorough
instruction in all mercantile calculations), published
1527, while the hymnal contains two songs from
Johannes Walther's (1496-1570) Lutheran hymnal
published in Wittenberg in 1524.

66. 66

67. 67
• Holbein painted images of prospective
brides for Henry VIII.
• Christina of Denmark rejected Henry in
favor of becoming a nun.
Christina of Denmark, 1538,
oil on Oak, 179 x 82.5 cm.
National Gallery, London.

68. 68
Anne of Cleves, 1538-9
Parchment glued on canvas,
65 x 48 cm
Musee du Louvre, Paris.
• In 1539, Holbein was sent to
to paint Anne of Cleves as a
possible candidate for
marriage.
• The point of the picture was
to give Henry as close an
idea of the woman's
appearance as possible.
• This would explain the frontal
position, in which every detail
of the face can be examined.

69. 69
• Jane Seymour (1509-1537) was the
third wife of King Henry VIII of
England and mother of King Edward
VI. She succeeded - where Henry's
previous wives had failed - in
providing a legitimate male heir to
the throne.
• The simplicity of the shadowed
background the artist's skill in
creating the sheen and lustre of the
precious stones.
• Great attention has been paid to the
realism of the silver thread in the
queen's dress, and this new
opulence was to be echoed in the
portrait of Henry himself.

70. 70
• Holbein painted portraits of
all the members of the royal
family.
• Holbein depicts the King at
`face value', without flattery,
emphasizing the small,
humorless eyes and mouth,
the curiously flat cheeks and
chin. Henry's bulky and
capricious authority haunts
the work despite its small
size.
Hans Holbein
Henry VIII, c. 1536
Oak, 27.5 x 17.5 cm
Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection,
Madrid.

71. 71
• Edward VI (1537-1553),
king of England and
Ireland from 1547 to
1553, was King Henry
VIII's only legitimate son.
• He died in 1553 at the
age of 15.
• Edward stands behind a
parapet and against a
monochrome background of
bright blue that has turned
greeny-brown over the
centuries.
• The conventional design is
enlivened by the shadow and
the rich red, brown and gold
color combination gives a
mellow impression of
childhood.
• The skill in the foreshortening
of the right hand's extended
fingers distracts somewhat
from the flat facial features -
a characteristic of Holbein's
royal portraiture.

72. 72
• Like most northern artists
of the time Holbein
contributed his skills to
the growing graphics
industry.
• He was commissioned
for many illustration jobs
of both religious and
secular texts.
The Plowman from Dance of Death, 1524-26,
Woodcut, 65 x 48 mm, Kupferstichkabinett,
Öffentliche Kunstsammlung, Basle
Holbein and the
Graphic Arts
• The Dance of Death was first
published as a book in 1538 by
the brothers Melchior and
Gaspar Trechsel in Lyons.
• The book contains 41 woodcuts
carved by Hans Lützelburger
from drawings by Holbein.
• The Plowman is one of these
masterpieces.

73. 73
• Holbein worked as a
designer of woodcuts from
the beginning of his career,
and a common commission
was to design title pages of
books.
• A space for the title would
be left empty in the middle
so that the text could be
changed at will, a single
woodcut usually being used
for several books.
• This composition, in which
putti hold a large unrolled
sheet, was first used by the
celebrated Basle printer
Jonathan Froben in 1516.
• His printer's mark, a
caduceus held by a hand, is
integrated into the lower part
of the composition.
Title page in the form of a Renaissance
niche, 1516. Woodcut, 18 x 12 cm
Kupferstichkabinett,
Öffentliche Kunstsarnmlung, Basle

74. 74
• The subject matter of the next picture is typical of the Reformation. In the
center of the picture is a candelabra supported by the symbols of the
Evangelists. The light from the candle illuminates the entire picture.
Christ draws the attention of His flock, which includes people of modest
rank, to the flame of the Gospels.
•On the right, ecclesiastical dignitaries and scholars follow the philosophers
of antiquity Plato and Aristotle, who represent humanist and scholastic
attempts to explain the world, and they are seen stumbling blindly towards
the abyss.
Christ as the True Light, c 1526, Woodcut, 8,4 x 27,7 cm,
Kupferstichkabinett, Öffentliche Kunstsammlung, Basle

75. 75
The Netherlands
• At the beginning of the 16th century, the Netherlands consisted of
17 provinces under Spanish control.
• The seven northern provinces were predominantly Germanic in
culture, Dutch speaking, and Calvinist, while the southern
provinces were largely French and Flemish speaking, Catholic,
and culturally linked to France.
• In the 16th century, the Netherlands became commercially
advanced and prosperous through overseas trade and
shipbuilding.

76. 76
Jan Gossaert
(1462/70-1533/41)
• Gossaert shows an
interest in classicism
in Neptune and
Amphitrite.
Neptune and Amphitrite.
1516. Oil on panel.
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin.

77. 77
• This theme occurs at least
nine times in Gossaert’s
painted and graphic oeuvre,
but none of these renderings
is dated.
• On grounds of style, however,
the present painting would
seem to have been
undertaken after the Neptune
and Amphitrite of 1516.
• In general terms, as his career
developed, Gossaert evolved
compositions of greater
complexity characterized by
contorted poses with
exaggerated anatomy and a
vivid treatment of chiaroscuro.
• At the same time his technique
became altogether freer. The
Adam and Eve in the Royal
Collection may date from
around 1520.
Adam and Eve, c. 1520, Oil on panel,
168,9 x 111,4 cm,
Royal Collection, Windsor

78. 78
The Money-changer and his Wife is an
early example of the genre painting which
would flourish in Flanders and the northern
Netherlands over the course of the 16th
century.
Quentin Massys (c.1464/65-1530)
• The painting
shows a man
holding scales
and checking the
weight of coins
on the table.
• His wife interrupts
her reading of a
prayer book to
watch him.
• The painting
includes numerous
references to the
importance of a
moral, righteous,
and spiritual life.

79. 79
• Full of their own life, on the other hand, are the still-life details - the
lavishly illuminated codex through which the wife is leafing, the angled
mirror, which reflects the outer world into the picture in masterly
foreshortening, and the glass, accessories and coins gleaming on the
table and on the shelves against the far wall.
• In the dominant role which it grants to these objects, the painting marks
an important step along the path towards the pure still life.
• By inserting his own likeness into the painting - reflected in the convex
mirror Massys recalls the use of this device by Jan van Eyck in The
Arnolfini Marriage of 1434.

80. 80

81. 81
By inserting his own likeness into the painting - reflected in
the convex mirror Massys recalls the use of this device by
Jan van Eyck in The Arnolfini Marriage of 1434.

82. 82
• In this next painting Massys
demonstrates his confident
abilities as a portrait painter.
• The canon calmly surveys the
outside world, but his thoughts
seem to be turned inwards.
• In his composition, the half length
figure is contained within the
approximate volume of a
pyramid, dominating the pictorial
field.
• Massys avoids any rigidity
by slightly offsetting the
sitter to the left of the
central axis and by
showing his head slightly
turned.
• There is harmony in the
relationship between figure
and landscape.
• From a slightly elevated
standpoint, we look out
across a broad expanse of
hills and meadows towards
the hazy distant
mountains.
Portrait of a Canon, 1510s, Oil
on wood, 60 x 73 cm, Collection
of the Prince of Lichtenstein

83. 83
Pieter Aertsen (1508-1575)
• A pioneer of still life and genre painting, he is best known for
scenes that at first glance look like pure examples of these types,
but which in fact have a religious scene incorporated in them.
Butcher's Stall, 1551, Oil on panel, 123 x 167 cm, Museum Gustavianum, Uppsala

84. 84
• Aertsen's painting appears to be a genre scene, it is embedded with
strategically placed religious images which allude to salvation through Christ.
• In the 16th and 17th centuries it was quite common for theologians to see a
slaughtered animal as symbolizing the death of a believer. Allusions to the
'weak flesh' (cf.Matthew 16:41) may well have been associated with
Aertsen's Butcher's Stall where - like on his fruit and vegetable stalls - a
seemingly infinite abundance of meat has been spread out.

85. 85
• In the next slide, we find a
cook, firmly positioned in
front of the imposing
chimney-piece, the cook
stands surrounded by the
food she is preparing to
cook: voluminous cabbages
in a basket, and fowls and a
leg of meat skewered on a
spit which she holds firmly in
one hand, whilst with the
other she grabs a skimming
ladle.
• The absence of religious subject
matter, which still underlay all genre
scenes at the time, is another stroke
of daring by the painter, even if 16th
century viewers would have
immediately recognized, in the
cook, the Martha of the gospel
narrative, who is busy preparing the
meal whilst her sister Mary is
listening to Christ's words.
• This image also has a moralizing
content and should be read as a
warning against the dangers of the
pleasures of the flesh.
Cook in front of the Stove, 1559
Oil on wood, 172,5 x 82 cm
Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels

86. 86
• Caterina van Hemessen's
Self-portrait is purportedly
the first known northern
European self-portrait by a
woman.
• She was highly successful;
her main patron was Queen
Mary of Hungary. When she
married in 1554 her career
ended. Most historians think
this is true because there
are no paintings by her after
this date and because it was
customary for a woman to
give up painting after she
was married.
Self-Portrait, 1548, 12 1/4" x 9 7/8".
Kunstmuseum, Öffentiliche
Kunstsammlung Basel.

87. 87
• Joachim Patenier 's Landscape with Saint Jerome, which
shows the saint removing a thorn from a lion's paw in the
foreground, subordinates the biblical scene to the exotic and
detailed landscape.
• The sense of an expansive landscape is amplified by using color
to enhance the visual effect of recession and advance.
Land-
scape
with
Saint
Jerome
1520 -
1524
Oil on
panel,
2' 51/8"
x 2'
117/8".
Prado,
Madrid.

88. 88
• Patenier, working in Antwerp, was a landscape specialist, often
providing the backgrounds to the figures of other masters such
as Massys.
• In his own work the landscape becomes the dominant element,
so that the figure subject which justifies it becomes sometimes
no more than a tiny incident in the foreground.
• The impression is sought of vast panoramic vistas, which are
seen not from a natural but from an artificially high viewpoint.
• Typically the landscape is enlivened by dramatic effects of
whether or the outbreak of fire, in a manner influenced by Bosch.
Charon, Oil on panel, 64 x 103 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid

89. 89
Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1525/30-1569)
• Pieter Bruegel the Elder, was probably the most significant
and exciting painter in the Northern Europe during the middle
part of the sixteenth century.
• His nickname “Peasant Bruegel” indicates to his subjects:
peasant life, proverbs and genre scenes, the New Testament
topics set among common folks of contemporary Flanders.
Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Big Fish Eat Little Fish. 1556. Ink on paper. Graphische Sammlung Albertina, Vienna, Austria.

90. 90
• Between 1556 and 1559, at the request of Hieronymus Cock, the
well-known publisher of prints, Pieter Bruegel made the initial
drawings for two series of engravings dedicated to the Seven
Mortal Sins and the Seven Virtues respectively.
• In the next drawing, which represents the cardinal virtue of
Prudence, the figures are making all kinds of provident
preparations for the future, following the recommendations of the
Latin caption. "If you wish to be prudent, set your eyes on the
future and make provision for everything that can happen".

91. 91
• Pieter Bruegel’s Hunters in the Snow, which is one of five
surviving paintings of a series of six illustrating seasonal
changes in the year, shows a winter scene with human figures
in a snowy landscape.
• Bruegel rendered the landscape in an optically accurate
manner.
Hunters in the Snow, 1565. Oil on panel, 3' 10" x 5' 4". Kunsthistorisches Museum,

92. 92
• Bruegel's Netherlandish Proverbs depicts in a bird's eye view
a typical Netherlandish village populated by a wide range of
people (nobility, peasants, and clerics) in order to illustrate over
one hundred proverbs.
Netherlandish Proverbs, 1559. Oil on panel, 3' 10" x 5' 41/8". Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen, Berlin.

93. 93Detail- Netherlandish Proverbs, 1559. Oil on panel, 3' 10" x 5' 41/8".

94. 94
• Bruehgel’s Tower of Babel is infused with the architectural
influence of his trip to Italy where he was impressed by the
coliseum and other Roman ruins.
• He filled the painting with hundreds of tiny figures that contrast
with the massive tower structure.
The Tower of Babel, 1563, Oil on oak panel, 114 x 155 cm;Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Vienna

95. 95
Spain
• Spain emerged as the dominant European power at the end of
the 16th century, with territory extending over part of Europe, the
western Mediterranean, part of North Africa, and large portions of
the New World.
• Spain vigorously defended and promoted the interests of the
Catholic Church in Europe and the New World.

96. 96
• A Late Gothic style of architecture in Spain is known as
Plateresque, a term derived from the Spanish word for
silversmith.
• The lofty sculptured stone screen of the entrance to the
Colegio de San Gregorio in Valladolid exemplifies the
Plateresque manner.

97. 97
• In this style Spain found the
very essence of its genius
in the art of relief.
• The sculpture spreads over
the architectural forms and
in fact engulfs them, so that
the whole façade appears
to be a large relief, rather
than a structure.
Portal and detail, Colegio de San Gregorio,
Valladolid, Spain, ca. 1498.

98. University of Salamanca, Spain San Marcos, Leon 98
Other examples of the plateresque style

99. 99
• In his simple and clear
design for the palace of
Charles V in the Alhambra
in Granada,
Pedro Machuca used
superposed Doric and Ionic
orders to support
continuous horizontal
entablatures to create a
pure Italianate classicism.
Pedro Machuca
Courtyard of the palace of Charles V,
ca. 1526–1568.
Alhambra, Granada, Spain,

100. 100Pedro Machuca, Palace of Charles V, Granada, Spain, exterior view.

101. 101
• The huge, austere complex of the Escorial, built for Philip II by
Juan de Herrera, includes a royal mausoleum, a church, a
monastery, and a palace.
• The gridlike plan symbolizes the gridiron upon which Saint
Lawrence, patron of the Escorial, was martyred.
• The severely plain walls are broken only at the three entrances,
where superposed orders frame the central portal topped by a
pediment in the Italian fashion.
Escorial, built for Philip II by Juan de Herrera

102. 102

103. 103

104. 104

105. 105

106. 106
Luis de Morales
1510-1576
• Morales learned his refined
techniques from his teacher, the
Flemish artist,
Pedro de Compaña.
• He then moved to Portugal and
Italy, where the influence of the
European painters, Leonardo da
Vinci, Bellini and Raphael among
others, filtered into his works.
• This painting reflects the
adaptation of descriptive forms
of the early Renaissance, and
also the Spanish mysticism of
the era.
• Examples are the expressions,
and the technique of
contrasting dark and light.
• This painting also reveals a
profound religious feeling,
incorporating mannerism.
Luis De Morales
Virgin with the Child
1570, 33" X 25.6“,
Prado, Madrid, Spain

107. 107
Juan De Juanes (1516-1580)
• Jaunes to Italy where he was heavily influenced by the
masters of the Italian school, especially Raphael.
• His work is a great example of the reflection of religion
and the spirit of Catholicism in art, using the techniques of
mannerism .
• His sensitive use and combination of richness of colour
lead us to believe that Juanes also admired the Dutch
painters and was able to improve his own techniques by
copying them.
The Last Supper, (La Ultima Cena), 1560s .45.6" x 75.1“, Prado

108. 108
El Greco
(c.1541 - 1614)
• Born Domenikos Theotocopoulos
in Crete, El Greco spent his adult
life in Spain.
• Here we see his distinctive style
in St. Martin and the Beggar.
St. Martin and the Beggar
1597-99, Oil on canvas
193.5 x 103 cm (76 1/8 x 40 1/2 in)
National Gallery of Art, Washington

109. 109
• The most unusual painter in 16th-century Europe,
El Greco combined the strict Byzantine style of his
homeland, Greece, with influences received during his
studies in Venice and the medieval tradition of the country
where he worked, Spain.
• About 1566, El Greco went to Venice, where he remained
until 1570. He was employed in the workshop of Titian and
was also strongly influenced by Tintoretto.

110. 110
• Such early Venetian paintings as his
Christ Healing the Blind Man (1566-1567) demonstrate El Greco’s
assimilation of Titianesque color and of Tintoretto's figural compositions
and use of deep spatial recesses.
• Three versions of this subject are known, all basically the same in
composition, but differing in treatment.
• The earliest, an unsigned panel in Dresden, is looser in composition,
smaller in conception, and introduces genre motifs of a dog, sack and
pitcher in the foreground, eliminated in subsequent versions.
• This painting was executed under the influence of Venetian painting, in
the 17th century it was previously attributed to Paolo Veronese, later to
Jacopo Bassano.

111. 111
• Painted for the central
panel of the High
Altarpiece of the church
of Santo Domingo el
Antiguo, Toledo, this
commission brought
El Greco to Spain.
• This, the first work
executed in Spain, is the
only painting by El Greco
bearing the date of its
execution.
• It is the first large-scale
painting by his hand.
In Assumption of the Virgin
there is a clear reminiscence of
Venetian paintings of the
subject, and specifically of
Titian's early masterpiece in the
church of the Frari in Venice,
but the treatment is his own.
Assumption of the Virgin, 1577
Oil on canvas, 401 x 229 cm,
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago

112. 112
• El Greco spent in Rome,
from 1570 to 1576.
• The sculptural qualities of
the work of Italian artist
Michelangelo inspired him,
as is evident in his Pietà.
The Pietà (The Lamentation of Christ)
1571-76, Tempera on panel.
29 x 20 cm,
Philadelphia Museum of Art,

113. 113
• These same sculptural
qualities appear in
The Resurrection.
El Greco. The Resurrection. 1584-1594.
Oil on canvas. Museo del Prado,
Madrid, Spain.

114. 114
• In 1586 El Greco
painted one of his
greatest masterpieces,
The Burial of Count
Orgaz, for the Church of
Santo Tomé in Toledo.
• This work, still in place,
portrays a 14th-century
Toledo nobleman laid in
his grave (in actuality
situated just below the
painting) by Saints
Stephen and Augustine.
El Greco, Burial of Count Orgaz
1586 , Oil on canvas
460 cm × 360 cm (180 in × 140 in)
Church of Santo Tomé, Toledo,

115. 115
• Above, the count's soul rises to a heaven
densely populated with angels,
saints, and contemporary
political figures.

116. 116
• Below, El Greco is concerned with expressing the emotion and religious
fervor of his figures and developed a highly personal style to convey
intense spiritual visions.

117. 117
Agony in the
Garden,
1595
oil on canvas,
Toledo
Museum
of Art, Ohio.

118. 118
View of Toledo, c. 1597
Oil on canvas
47 3/4 x 42 3/4 in. (121.3 x
108.6 cm)
The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York

119. 119
• In Portrait of a Cardinal, the
sitter is usually identified as
Cardinal Don Fernando Niño de
Guevera (1541-1609), Grand
Inquisitor and, from 1601,
Archbishop of Seville.
• The painting was executed c.
1600, when Inquisitor-General,
and certainly before he became
Archbishop of Seville.
• He is one of a number of
eminent ecclesiastics of
Toledo portrayed by El
Greco, and it is one of his
finest portraits.
• The splendor and richness of
color is appropriate to the
character and rank of the
sitter.
El Greco
Portrait of a Cardinal, c. 1600
Oil on canvas, 194 x 130 cm,
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

120. 120
• There are several
assumed self-portraits
of El Greco included in
his compositions from
the early Healing of
the Blind to the
Burial of Count
Orgaz.
• This picture shows an
independent self-
portrait of his old age.
El Greco, Self-Portrait
c. 1604, Oil on canvas
59 x 46 cm
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York

121. 121
Jean Fouquet(c. 1415/20 - c.1480)
• Jean Fouquet was the most famous French painter of his day
• probably received instruction in the illumination of manuscripts under
Flemish-Burgundian masters, possibly the Limbourg brothers.
• In the 1440s, Fouquet was in Rome, recognized as the royal portraitist
of France, and commissioned to paint Pope Eugenius IV and his
nephews.
• Fouquet succeeded in combining the diverse influences of Italian and
French art of the Early Renaissance to achieve a courtly classicism,
marked by a certain detachment and severe construction, which is
unique in the art of the 15th century.

122. 122
Jean Fouquet
Visitation. c. 1453-1456.
Miniature from the Book of
Hours of Etienne Chevalier.
Body color on parchment.
Musée Condé,
Chantilly, France.

123. 123
Jean Fouquet.
Diptych de Moulin.
Etienne Chavalier
Presented by St.
Stephen. Right
panel. c.1450.
Tempera on wood.
Gemaldegalerie,
Berlin, Germany.

124. 124
Jean Fouquet.
Diptych de Moulin.
Madonna and
Child. Left panel. c.
1450. Tempera on
wood. Koninklijk
Museum voor
Schone Kunsten,
Antwerp, Belgium.

125. 125
The king is painted
between drawn
curtains. His thin,
ascetic face,
melancholy eyes and
puritan simplicity are
evidence of the
profound
psychological
penetration of the
painter and the
economy of the
means used to
express it.
Portrait of Charles VII of France
c. 1445,Wood, 86 x 72 cm
Musée du Louvre,Paris

126. 126
Jean Clouet
(c.1485?-1540)
• Clouet came to France as court
painter to the Duke of Burgundy and
rose to the position of court painter to
King Francis I.
• The works attributed to him show an
undeniably Netherlandish influence,
particularly in the rendering of detail.
Jean Clouet. Portrait of Claude
of Lorraine, Duke of Guise.
Oil on wood. Palazzo Pitti,
Galleria Palatina,
Florence, Italy.

127. 127
• The court painter Jean
Clouet's royal child belongs
to the tradition of courtly
painting. It is a little stiff, and
rather idealizes its subject
with a great deal of attention
to external decoration.
• A chalk study for this little
portrait, in its fine, antique
style frame in imitation
marble, is now kept in the
museum at Chantilly.
The Dauphin François, Son of François
I, Oil on panel, 16 x 13 cm
Koninklijk Museum
voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp

128. 128
• Rosso Fiorentino and Francesco Primaticcio decorated the
Gallery of King Francis I at Fontainebleau with a combination of
painting, fresco, imitation mosaic, and stucco sculpture in relief.
– The elongated grace and stylized poses of the figures,
– the compressed space, and
– the abrupt changes in scale and texture of the figurative elements
are typically Mannerist.
Rosso Fiorintino and Francesco Primiticcio, ensemble of architecture, sculpture, and painting,
Gallery of King Francis I, Fontainebleau, France, ca. 1530–1540.

129. 129
This work was painted after an engraving of a composition by
Rosso Fiorentino (1494–1540) intended for the decoration of
the Galerie François I in the château at Fontainebleau.

130. 130
• The Château de Chambord served as country house and
hunting lodge for Francis I.
• Chambord's plan, comprised of a central square block with
four corridors in the shape of a cross, imposes Italian
concepts of symmetry and balance on the irregularity of the
old French fortress.
Château de Chambord, Chambord, France, begun 1519.

131. 131
• The palace at Fontainebleau was has architectural elements
from the 16th to the 19th century.
• In the 16th century, Henry II and Catherine de Medici
commissioned architects Philibert Delorme and Jean Bullant to
build a new palace on the site.
• Italian Mannerist artists Rosso Fiorentino and Primaticcio came
to assist in the interior decoration, helping to found the School of
Fontainebleau..

132. 132
• Pierre Lescot's (c. 1510- 1578) An early architect to apply
pure classical orders in France.
• His design for the west façade of the Square Court of the
Louvre in Paris incorporates Italian architectural ideas to
produce a modified classicism.
• The sculptural decoration is the work of Jean Goujon.
Pierre Lescot and Jean Gougon, west façade of the
Square Court of the Louvre, Paris, France, begun 1546.

133. 133

134. 134

135. 135
• Jean Goujon's reliefs of slender Nymphs carrying or
standing next to vases of flowing water originally
decorated two façades of the Fountain of the
Innocents in Paris.
• Their figura serpentinata poses are Mannerist.
Jean Goujon, Nymphs, from the dismantled Fountain of the Innocents, Paris,
France, 1548–1549. Marble reliefs. Louvre, Paris. Each 6' 4" x 2' 4".

136. 136
SUMMARY:
• Attempts to reform the Church led to the Reformation and the
establishment of Protestantism, which in turn prompted the Catholic
Counter-Reformation. Catholics and Protestants differed on the role of
visual imagery in religion.
• Matthias Grunewald’s complex Isenheim Altarpiece consists of a
wooden shrine with gilded and polychromed statues and two pairs of
movable wings that open at the center.
• The well-traveled and widely admired German artist and printmaker
Albrecht Dürer achieved international celebrity with prints like his
engraving The Fall of Man (Adam and Eve), for which he studied the
Vitruvian theory of human proportions.

137. 137
• Hans Holbein the Younger's painted meticulous portraits of
important Renaissance people as well as court portraits for Henry
VIII.
• In the early 16th century, French kings attempted to reorganize
France and to secure the country's recognition as a political power.
Francis I invited Leonardo da Vinci and other esteemed Italian
artists to his court.
• In the early 16th century, French kings attempted to reorganize
France and to secure the country's recognition as a political power.
Francis I invited Italian artists to his court.

138. 138
• Pierre Lescot's design for the west façade of the Square Court of
the Louvre in Paris incorporates Italian architectural ideas to
produce a modified classicism.
• In the 16th century, the Netherlands became commercially
advanced and prosperous through overseas trade and shipbuilding.
• A new secular art developed available to the prosperous middle
class.
• Pieter Bruegel the Elder was known as “Peasant Brueghal” for
his many secenes of Dutch peasant life.

139. 139
• Spain emerged as the dominant European power at the
end of the 16th century.
• In his simple and clear design for the palace of Charles
V in the Alhambra in Granada,Pedro Machuca used
superposed Doric and Ionic orders to support
continuous horizontal entablatures to create a pure
Italianate classicism.
• Domenikos Theotocoupolous known as El Greco
expresses emotion and religious fervor in his figures
and develops a highly personal style to convey intense
spiritual visions.

140. 140
Links:
• Isenheim Altarpiece (Web Museum)
• Hans Holbein (National Gallery-London)
• Albrecht Dürer – 4 prints
• Jean Fouquet (Web Gallery of Art)
• Amsterdam's Rijksmuseum
• Great Buildings Online (The Alhambra)
• El Greco at the Prado