Rational choice theory and routine activities theory view criminal behavior through a neoclassical lens that sees offenders as rational actors who assess risks and benefits when deciding whether to engage in criminal acts. Crime pattern theory examines how environmental factors like urban design and an individual's awareness space and cognitive map influence crime patterns. Together, these perspectives focus on situational factors and crime opportunities to better understand criminal decisions and how to reduce crime through environmental modifications and other measures.

1. Crime as ChoiceCJS 380 Crime Science:Principles, Strategies and Practice ofCrime Prevention and Reduction©J.A. Gilmer

2. Classical and Neoclassical TraditionsReaction to punishment of crime based the ‘divine authority’ assumed by the state2

3. CesareBeccariaOn Crimes and Punishments (1764)Thesis of reform based on rational criminal justice & punishmentHuman nature is ‘hedonistic’; so no need to ‘explain crime’Society based on social contractRational choice Individual accountable for own actionPunishment should ‘fit the crime’Certain, swift, proportionate1738-17943

4. Principles of Classical DeterrenceCertainty – punishment willbeadministered Swiftness –in temporal proximity to crimeSeverity –in sufficient measure to prevent recurrenceCritiqueEqual imposition of punishments not practicalMitigating circumstances cannot be consideredAll equal in terms of moral responsibility4

5. Neoclassical AdaptationsRecognized certain conditions as more amenable to ‘free choice’Some rational choice constrained by factors beyond control of individualPre-existing conditionsVariation in opportunity structureChoosing to commit crime still valid but limitations are recognized5

6. Rational choice perspectiveNEOCLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY6

7. The Rational Choice TheoryCornish, D and R. Clarke (1986) “Introduction.” The Reasoning CriminalOffenders seek to benefit themselves by criminal behavior

8. Even impulsive or pathologically motivated offenders

9. Crime-specific focus

10. Situational context of decision making and information processed varies greatly

11. Distinguishes between criminal involvement and the criminal event7

12. Criminal Involvement ProcessModel of Criminal InvolvementBackground factorsPast Learning/ExperienceGeneralized NeedSolutions EvaluatedPerceived SolutionReaction to Chance EventReadiness (decision pt.)Decision8Source: Cornish and Clarke (1986)

13. Crime Event Model9Source: Cornish and Clarke (1986)

14. Modeling Persistence10Source: Cornish and Clarke (1986)

15. Modeling Desistence11Source: Cornish and Clarke (1986)

16. Summary of Rational Choice TheoryAssumes that criminals are “rational actors”Assess risks – perceived gains against perceived likelihood getting caught and punishedDistinguish decision of criminal involvement from decision to commit crimeIndividual differences between criminals and non-criminals are irrelevant (not positivist)Need to examine particular crimes and criminal methods more closelyReduce crime by focusing on criminal event and situational factors contributing to it12

17. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORYNEOCLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY13

18. Routine Activities TheoryMacro-level theory to Rational Choice’s microSought to explain increase in crime during period of relative affluenceFocused on crime relative to structural change in lifestyles Less time at home with familyMore time with non-familyDirect contact predatory violations14Marcus FelsonCohen, Lawrence E. and Marcus Felson (1979). “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.” American Sociological Review. 44:588-605.

19. The Crime TriangleMotivated OffendersNot problematic for theorySuitable TargetsHuge increases in consumer spending and availability of “portable” goods since WWIIAbsence of Capable GuardiansMore people in workforceAnonymity of modern lifePolice not the problem15CRIME

20. The Crime Triangle (with Controllers)Controller – formal or informal responsibility to monitorHandlerClose enough to exercise control over offenderManagerController for specific locationGuardianFormal: police/securityInformal: family/owner or recruited/“Samaritan”16CRIME

21. Association with Social Control TheorySocial Bond as “handle”Attachment to othersCommitment to conformityInvolvement in conventional activitiesBelief in legal/normative valuesIntimate handlersParents, legal guardiansInformantsClose neighbors17Travis Hirschi

22. Summary of Routine ActivitiesAssumes “rational actors” calculate cost/benefitAccounts for social change at macro (structural) levelRequires “direct violation”that involvesMotivated offenderVulnerable target of victimLack of capable guardianship18

23. Crime pattern THEORYNEOCLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY19

24. Environmental CriminologyBased in human and social ecology Understand crime, criminality and victimization by examining the physicality in which crimes occurDeterminants of crime: law, offenders, targets, and placesReduce crime opportunities by manipulating space and place20Paul and Patricia BrantinghamBrantingham, P. J. & Brantingham, P. L. (1991). Environmental Criminology. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

25. Concepts of Crime Pattern TheoryAction Space– physical spatial patterns in which individuals live their livesNodes – daily places of to/from movementAwareness Space –areas individuals have information about; envelops action spacePaths– routes between personal activity nodesCognitive Map –movements along paths between personal activity nodes about which mental images of the environment are formed21

26. More ConceptsEdges – “sharp visual break” in environment between different kinds of land use: residential/commercial, arterials, college campuses, parks, etc.Discrete: divides neighborhoods – creates “in-between” areaConnected: by motorized transport; increased mobility allows quick, easy in/out access22

27. Cognitive MapsMental map derived from awareness spaceDistance decay function– increased distance from activity nodes results in less ‘comfort’Offenders less likely to search for targets, thus committing fewer crimes Distance decay varies by crime type: Expressive (affective) – more spontaneous, emotionalInstrumental -- buffer zone around home23

28. The City, Awareness Space, & Mental MapsUrban design, traffic/transit patterns, and criminal activity“awareness spaces and cognitive maps of both offenders and non-offenders will vary based on the actual structure of the city and its transportation system.” (p. 94) Implications for urban planners and real estate developers Grid street system easier to negotiate than “organic” system What is Albany’s street pattern?24

29. Crime Pattern Theory Elements – 1Basic Assumption: rational motivated offender searches for suitable targets w/in awareness spaceMotivation: diverse sources, strength and character of motivation varyActual Crime Commission: end result of multistage decision processSeek out/identify target/victim within general environment positioned in time and spaceHigh affect motivation ≈ minimal number of stagesHigh instrumental motivation ≈ many stages/searches25

30. Crime Pattern Theory Elements – 2Environmental Cues: environment emits of physical, spatial, cultural, legal, psychological signalsMay be generalized or detailedCues Aid in Target/Victim Identification: experience or learned social transmissionExperiential Knowledge: cues are basis for ‘template’ for victim/target selectionTemplate Construction & Search Process: conscious or unconscious; once established, becomes fixedClustering of targets/victims: minimizes number of and helps identify offender ‘templates’26

31. Is Crime Rational?No simple answerAlcohol/drugs impair decision making and limit rationality Low self-control & impulsivity limit rationalityThe dimensions of self-control affects an individual’s ability to calculate and appreciate the long-term consequences of action – particularly hedonistic, self-satisfying criminal behaviorBut … decisions need not be ‘completely rational’ to meet assumptions of choice theory27

32. Study of 86 Active Armed Robbers28Offender motivationWhy do the authors believe it is fundamental to understanding criminal behavior?Why did subjects rob?Walking ATMsKeep up appearancesInadequate legal workPay back money borrowedRichard Wright

33. Why robbery?Safer/fewer hassles selling burg swag, dealing with junkiesLow technical / interpersonal skill setunlike bank robbery or fraudQuick and easy source of cash for “cash intensive lifestyle”29

34. Back to MotivationRational choice and routine activities theories assume offenders motivated to crimeSocial control theory assumes criminal motivation is inherent in human nature (and thus irrelevant in explaining crime)Conduct norms of street-culture emphasize spontaneous hedonism against reflection on long-term consequences and other options30

35. Jacobs & Wright’s Robbery Model31

36. A look around AlbanyExercise32

37. Albany Online Crime Mapping33http://www.albanyny.org/Government/Departments/Police/cmapping/maps.aspx

38. APPSNET – Pine Hills Crime34Zoom inZoom outPanIdentifyRedrawZoom previousInitial extentPrint

39. Bing Maps – Bird’s Eye View35Science Centerhttp://www.bing.com/maps/Default.aspx?encType=1&v=2&ss=ypid.YN640x11256014&style=r&FORM=LLDP

40. Urban Campus Safety ProjectHow could neoclassical approaches to the theory of crime, criminality and victimization inform the analysis of crime problems for a college campus embedded in an urban environment?Rational Choice Theory

41. Routine Activities Theory

42. Crime Pattern Theory36

43. Crime science and criminology37

44. What is Crime Science?Traditional criminology seeks to improve understanding of the psychological and social forces that cause people to become criminals in the hope of finding ways to change these causes. Crime science takes a radically different approach. It focuses not on the reasons why criminals are born or made, but on the act of committing crime. It seeks ways to reduce the opportunities and temptations for crime and increase the risks of detection. In doing so, it seeks contributions from a wide range of disciplines, including psychology, geography, medicine, town planning, and architecture. Crime science explicitly seeks to be judged by the extent to which it helps to reduce crime on our streets, and in our homes and businesses.38Source: Jill Dando Institute for Crime Science. (2004). http://www.jdi.ucl.ac.uk/about/crime_science/index.php

45. Criminology | Crime Science39