Skeletal Muscle Vs Smooth Muscle

Skeletal Muscle Vs Smooth Muscle
Mentioned earlier the differences between smooth muscle and skeletal muscle is in the way actin
and myosin is used during contraction, and the characteristics of the muscle cell as well. Skeletal
muscles have long strands of multinucleate cells and are made of sarcomeres that form the striations
within the cells. While smooth muscle, cells are not striated because they do not have sarcomeres
and have a single nucleus. In addition, skeletal muscles are the only muscle cells out of the three that
is voluntary. The third type of muscle cell is a cardiac muscle cell. Cardiac cells are quite different in
the fact that they create branches, have a single central nucleus, are cross–striated and are only
found in the heart, however they are more similar ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The gastrointestinal tract motility is composed on propulsion and mixing. Propulsion motility is
made of peristalsis, this is when a ring of muscle contraction starts from the mouth and travels down
to the anus, moving the contents through (Bowen 2002). Mixing happens when segmentation
contractions occur; this is when the segmental rings of the intestine mix/chop what is being moved
through (Bowen 2002). The smooth muscles of this system are arranged in, "intertwined, rather
indistinct bundles, aligned in most areas of the tube in circular and longitudinal layers" (Bowen
2002). The neighboring smooth muscle cells are joined together by gap junctions, this allows for
electrical coupling. Electrical coupling is needed for the propulsion or mixing of the contents that
had been ingested because without it the contraction would only been seen in patches of the circular
and longitudinal muscle (Bowen 2002). After this experiment and looking further into the different
systems that contain smooth muscles, my one question I still have is what causes irritable bowl
syndrome, is it something to do with the contraction of the smooth muscle or something
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Histology Lab Essay
Histology
Laszlo Vass, Ed.D. Version 42–0013–00–01
Lab RepoRt assistant
This document is not meant to be a substitute for a formal laboratory report. The Lab Report
Assistant is simply a summary of the experiment's questions, diagrams if needed, and data tables
that should be addressed in a formal lab report. The intent is to facilitate students' writing of lab
reports by providing this information in an editable file which can be sent to an instructor.
Purpose
What is the purpose of this exercise?
The purpose of this exercise is to use the microscope to get an in depth look at different cell
structures and to learn how the shape and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
What is the primary function of connective tissue?
The connective tissue's primary function is to join bodily structures like bones and muscles to each
other or to hold tissues in their correct places in the body.
B. What can the shape of the cells in a particular type of tissue tell about the function of that tissue?
The shape of the cells in a particular tissue can tell us the function of that particular tissue based on
how it can move or communicate with other parts of the body. For example, a neuron can carry
electrical messages from the brain to other parts of the body because these cells are long and thin,
making them mobile.
C. What is matrix? Why do some tissues have more matrix than others?
The matrix is the extracellular fibers and ground substance of a connective tissue. Some tissues have
more matrix because the cells and fibers are not as tightly packed.
D. What do collagen fibers provide?
Collagen is strong and flexible and resists force in one direction. It is stronger than steel when

Smooth Muscle Contraction And Contraction Of Smooth Muscles
Introduction
Muscles; the way we get around. With smooth muscle gripping bones, creating movement with
electric current. Electrical signals flow from the brain down the spinal cord to open the calcium
floodgates. With the flow of calcium, the muscles contract, and because they're attached to bones,
the flow of calcium leads to muscles pulling on the bones, which cause movement. While the
contraction of muscles starts from the brain to get muscles to move from either slightly or greatly,
electricity can be used instead of the brain to create movement.
For the twitch recruitment, I believe that while a muscle will be more likely to flex when it is
provided with electricity, the muscle will not keep flexing at a continuous rate, even if the electricity

( 7 ) Explain Your Allergic ( Inflammation ) Response To...
7. (4 pts) Explain your allergic (inflammation) response to the bee sting. How will this response
affect your BP? After being stung by the bee, one indicator that you are having an allergic reaction
in this case is extreme redness of the skin. The bee sting injected allergens into your body and your
body overreacts trying to fight off the allergens and cause an allergic reaction.There are minor
allergic reactions and more severe ones. In this case if my body is turning red everywhere, and not
just where i was stung, then it is a more severe reaction. Swelling and Itchiness are some symptoms
to follow the redness of the skin but it is also common for your blood pressure to drop due to an
allergic reaction which should not be taken lightly.
8. (8 pts) Explain your autonomic response to this event. State which division is taking control and
describe exactly how that division will effect breathing rate, heart rate, sweating, and pupil size.
(Note: don't just describe the effect, but describe the specific control pathway that leads to each
effect, including any chemical messengers involved.) In stressful situations the body activates its
Autonomic Nervous System in an attempt to maintain homeostasis. The primary function is to
regulate the stress response. The amygdala recognizes the threat and the hypothalamus controls the
release of hormones from the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland can release hormones into the
bloodstream that travel down to the kidneys and

A Fetal Organ That Is Vital For The Growth Of The Fetus...
Project Background (500 words) The placenta is a fetal organ that is vital for the growth of the fetus
during pregnancy. Abnormalities in placental development can result in pregnancy complications
such as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) and pre–eclampsia (PE), which affect one in ten
pregnancies in New Zealand. IUGR occurs in 3–5% of all pregnancies, and is associated with an
assortment of increased risks of its own, such as hypoglycaemia, hypothermia, developmental
delays and increased risk of infection. Despite its prevalence, we currently have no effective
treatment for IUGR other than close monitoring and premature delivery of the baby. Worldwide,
10% of neonatal mortality can be put down to prematurity, but the risks do not stop there –
respiratory problems, feeding difficulties, and neurological problems also increase in incidence as
gestational age at delivery decreases. Furthermore, IUGR babies are at an increased risk of
cardiovascular problems, obesity and type II diabetes in adulthood, diseases which the health system
is currently plagued with. Together, these issues place a considerable burden on healthcare providers
in both the short and long term to the cost of up to $300 000 NZD per child, along with an intangible
cost to the families of the children. However, despite the significance of this problem, our
knowledge of the pathophysiology leading to IUGR is limited, and so developing effective
treatments for IUGR has been exceptionally

Brain Is Highly Metabolic And Important Organ Of The Body
Brain is highly metabolic and important organ of the body. Even though it weighs only 2% body
weight, however, requires disproportionate amount (~20 %) of the total blood flow. Unprecedented
fall in cerebral blood flow (CBF) would quickly lead to unconsciousness and, if sustained for longer
period of time would result in brain damage and death. Therefore, CBF is tightly regulated in the
brain, as it facilitates the delivery of essential substrates required for metabolism and removal of
metabolic by products.
1.1.1 Mechanism regulating CBF
The cerbrovasculature is always under the combined influence of a number of physical and chemical
stimuli that adjust vascular caliber/resistance so as to alter the blood supply to different parts of the
brain (Bayliss, 1902; Lassen, 1959). Autoregulation and metabolic coupling are 2 important
mechanism which regulates the CBF to the brain. Autoregulation ensures that constant blood flow is
supplied in the face of changes in perfusion pressure. The mechanism through which autoregulation
controls the blood flow during pressure changes is thought to be myogenic in nature but other
factors such as metabolic (CO2, O2, and so on) factors also assert some influence (Osol et al., 2002;
Paulson et al., 1990; Peterson et al., 2011). Furthermore, metabolic coupling mechanisms ensure that
blood flow is increased in active regions. CBF is highly variable across the brain and largely
dependent on neuronal activity, thus, an increase in neuronal

Notch Signaling In Smooth Muscle Cells
Notch Signaling in Pericytes brain cell
Background:
Pericytes and smooth muscle cell are mural cells surrounding blood vessels. Smooth muscle cells
are located in large blood vessels. The function of smooth muscle cells is to regulate blood vessel
contractility and structure.
Pericytes are found in small caliber vessels (capillaries). Pericytes are essential during angiogenesis,
in the formation of blood brain barrier, regulation of blood flow, and tissue regeneration. The
absence of pericytes is associated to diseases such as: Diabetic Retinopathy and alzheimer's disease.
Notch signaling is a pathway in multicellular organisms that regulates cell–fate determination during
development and maintain adult tissue homeostasis. Notch signaling ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This leads to the cleavage of notch, and as a result, the Notch Intracellular Domain (NICD), it is free
to travel to the nucleus, where it forms a complex with the transcription factor Rbpj. this allows to
start the transcription of target genes. Notch signaling in endothelial cell is necessary to promote
vessel morphogenesis, limit endothelial cell sprouting, control endothelial cell proliferation.
Pericytes express Notch1 and Notch3. The function of notch in pericytes is currently unknown.
Objectives
The purpose of this study is to understand what happens with the blood vessels in the brain when
notch signaling is deleted in pericytes.
Methods
For this purpose we used the inducible Cre–Lox system. This system allows to delete gene target by
giving tamoxifen to the mice. We used Pdgfrb–creERT2 because it activates the loxP recombination
specifically in pericytes after tamoxifen, and Rbpj–Flox/flox mice to delete rbpj, which will inhibit
notch signaling.
We studied the brain from six week old mutant mice with not notch signaling in pericytes and
controls. Immunostaining was used in brain slices. The primary antibodies used were Isolectin to
mark blood vessels and Desmin to identify pericytes. And a confocal microscope was used for

imaging. We analyzed, the number, length and width of the blood vessel. We also analyzed the
number of

Pig Trachealis Smooth Muscle Pharmomechanical coupling...
Pig Trachealis Smooth Muscle Pharmomechanical coupling uses Internal Calcium stores whilst
Electromechanical coupling uses Extracellular Calcium
Crystal Nguyen
School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, WA,
6009
Introduction
Smooth muscle contraction occurs when calcium is present in the smooth muscle cell and binds onto
calmodulin to activate myosin light chain kinase (Wilson et al., 2002). Phosphorylation of myosin
light chains result in myosin ATPase activity thus cross–bridge cycling occurs causing the muscle to
contract (Horowitz et al., 1996). There are two known models of excitation and contraction in
smooth muscle, electromechanical coupling (EMC) and pharmomechanical coupling ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Next, to determine if contraction via the EMC pathway requires extracellular or intracellular
calcium, the second type of stimulus was used and the tissue was stimulated using calcium free K+–
depolarising solution. The bathing solution in this experiment was calcium free solution to make
sure all extracellular calcium was eliminated, as without calcium, the EMC pathway is expected to
produce no response.
The second experiment sought to determine whether calcium entry is via L–type calcium channels,
therefore, verapamil (10–5 M) was used to block these channels. The tissue was then stimulated
using 0.2ml of Ach (10–5 M) and K+–depolarising solution.
Results
When the tissue was immersed in calcium free solution and stimulated with Ach via the PMC
pathway, a small contraction (1.15g) was observed compared to the baseline contraction trace
(6.37g). Contraction recovered when the bathing solution was changed back to normal Krebs
(5.63g). For the next stimulus, K+–depolarising solution, the baseline control produced a force of
6.17g in normal Krebs solution. When calcium free K+–depolarising solution was used to stimulate
the tissue in calcium free solution, via the EMC pathway, the tissue barely contracted at 0.09g. In
the second experiment, verapamil was added to the bathing solution. When the tissue was stimulated
by Ach in the presence of verapamil, it

Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH)
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a progressive disorder, characterized by right heart
catheterization, as a mean arterial pressure >25mmHg at rest in the pulmonary arteries. If left
untreated, this can lead to right ventricular failure and ultimately death. PAH can be either idiopathic
or concomitant with several other conditions. Following considerable deliberation, the World Health
Organisation (WHO) has classified PAH into five major diagnostic categories (Table 1)(1).
Currently there are several pharmacological treatment options for PAH which include endothelial
receptor antagonists (ERA), calcium–channels blockers, prostanoids and phosphodiesterase type 5
inhibitors (PDE5). Nevertheless, novel therapies are still in development. ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Transcription of ET–1 can be upregulated by various stimuli some of which include hypoxia, shear
stress and pH.
ET–1 receptors
ET–1 activates two subtypes of endothelin receptors (ETA and ETB receptors) which are guanine
nucleotide–binding proteins(4). The two receptors have different locations within the vasculature
and mediate different downstream pathways. As a result, ET–1 can have diverse effects on the
vasculature.
The vasoconstrictive effects of ET–1 are a result of predominately ETA and, to a lesser extent, ETB
receptors which are expressed on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Activation of these
receptors leads to IP3– mediated increases in intracellular calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum
stores(4). This rise in intracellular calcium, results in increased smooth muscle contraction and
subsequent vasoconstriction. Mitogenic effects of ET–1 can also be seen by activation of both
receptors which results in VSMC proliferation and thus contributes to

Smooth Muscle Simulation
The new information provided in the research articles clarify the exact mechanisms by which
diabetes may influence dilation of smooth muscle, and therefore slightly alter our perception of the
problem, however the broad concepts featured in both of our hypotheses were confirmed in the
information. Specifically, the articles do confirm our initial understanding of how the drugs
(specifically isoproterenol and forskolin) create dilation in both groups, as they activate Beta–
receptors which in turn activated Adenylyl cyclase, causing an increase in cAMP concentration
which ultimately leads to dilation. However, in the second document provided, they state that the
impairment in the dilation process due to high glucose levels in the blood took place downstream of
cAMP production, at the K+–channel step, immediately before dilation occurs. In our first
hypothesis, we focused on a potential impairment in the steps preceding cAMP production. We
hypothesized that glucose was not able to be converted into ATP in the cells since insulin prohibits
its uptake into cells, leading to the inability for cAMP production from ATP. While this may not be
the case, we were on the right path in indicating that there was in ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Influx and efflux of calcium regulate the membrane potential of the cell, which in turn regulates the
contractility of smooth muscle cells. However, we neglected to link calcium's role in membrane
potential to its effects on potassium channels, one of the focuses of the first paper and the main
influence on vasodilation and constriction. Furthermore, although external sources backed up the
influence of insulin in activating Ca2+–ATPase as we wrote in our second hypothesis, the new
supporting information does not mention insulin while suggesting that glucose might have a role in
be inhibiting these Ca+–dependent K+

Essay on Endothelium in Health and Disease
Investigation of the influence of the endothelium on the actions of acetylcholine and nitroprusside.
Results (a) Estimate the maximum responses (Emax) and EC50 values for phenylephrine with the
two types of arterial ring. Put this data in a single, self–explanatory table.
Table1. Emax and EC50 values for phenylephrine. Phenylephrine | Emax in grams tension | EC50 in
nM | Endothelium intact | 2.2 | 40 | Endothelium denuded | 2.9 | 10 |
(c) Estimate the EC50 values for the effects of acetylcholine and nitroprusside in both types of
arterial ring, and present these in a table. Table 2. EC50 values for the effect of acetylcholine and
nitroprusside. EC50 in nM | ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Shearing forces acting on the vascular endothelium generated by blood flow causes a release of
calcium and subsequent cNOS (cyclic nitric oxide synthase) activation. Therefore, increases in
blood flow stimulate NO formation (flow–dependent NO formation). Nitric oxide then causes
independent vasodilation by inhibiting vasoconstrictor influences of phenylephrine and alters its
potency and contractile effect. (Richard E. Klabunde. 2010) However, it has a short half–life of only
a few seconds. In endothelial denuded preparations there was no production of nitric oxide and
subsequently no flow dependent vasodilation occurred. So, without endothelium a response of
phenylephrine is not inhibited and therefore it exhibits a higher potency(lower EC50) and efficacy.
f) Account for the response to acetylcholine in the two preparations. Which receptor(s) mediates the
effects of acetylcholine in the rings with and without endothelium? As shown in the table 2 the
EC50 values of acetylcholine, calculated from the dose–response curve, significantly differ from
each other. In fact, in endothelium denuded rings acetylcholine caused no relaxation at all.
Moreover, the prolonged exposure to increasing concentrations had given some constriction. In
human and animals 5 sub types of muscarinic receptors (M1–M5) have been identified. In the
particular case of human blood vessels, the M3 subtype seems to be prevalent on endothelial cells as

Anion Gluconate Lab Report
Effects of reduction of [Cl–]o on slow waves recorded from smooth muscle cells by substituting
with gluconate–. The effects of changing extracellular chloride concentration ([Cl–]o) on the
electrical properties of smooth muscle were investigated by replacing 11%, 70%, and 90% of [Cl–]o
with the less permeant anion gluconate– as a substitute resulting in the following [Cl–]o: 13.3 mM,
39.9 mM and 119.8 mM , respectively. Application of gluconate Krebs solution containing 13.3 mM
[Cl–]o resulted in a transient hyperpolarization of the membrane potential (mV) in the first 40 s
period after the solution change (Fig 1A1,A2 and Fig 2A; ∆Em, 13.3 mM [Cl–]o: –3.32 ± 0.35 mV;
N=9; P < 0.05 vs. baseline; paired t test). This effect was concentration ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
isethionate Krebs solution. It has been reported that free Ca2+ concentrations in solution are
lowered by substitution of Cl– for gluconate or isethionate (Neufeld and Wright, 1995). Therefore,
we measured the free Ca2+ concentration in Krebs solutions containing gluconate and isethionate at
pH 7.4 after equilibration with CO2 using a Ca2+–ion selective electrode. Replacement of NaCl by
equimolar Nagluconate in Krebs solution reduced the free [Ca2+] in a concentration dependent
manner with a maximal reduction 6.5 fold lower than free Ca2+ in normal Krebs (Fig 5; Control,
134 mM Cl–: 0.86 ± 0.09 mM Ca2+; 120.3 mM gluconate, 13.3 mM Cl–: 0.13 ± 0.02 mM Ca2+;
94.1 mM gluconate, 39.9 mM Cl–: 0.17 ± 0.02 mM Ca2+; 14.2 mM gluconate, 119.8 mM Cl–: 0.53
± 0.08 mM Ca2+; N=5; all P < 0.05; unpaired t test). Isethionate substitution had a lesser effect than
gluconate substitution on free Ca2+ levels in solution with a maximal reduction in free Ca2+ of 1.6
fold at 120.3 mM Naisethionate, 13.3 mM NaCl (Fig 5; Control, 134 mM Cl–: 0.86 ± 0.09 mM
Ca2+; 120.3 mM isethionate, 13.3 mM Cl–: 0.54 ± 0.05 mM Ca2+; 94.1 mM isethionate, 39.9 mM
Cl–: 0.56 ± 0.07 mM Ca2+; 14.2 mM isethionate, 119.8 mM Cl–: 0.57 ± 0.09 mM Ca2+; N=5; all P
< 0.05; unpaired t test). Thus, it appears possible that the chelation of free Ca2+ by gluconate could
mediate some of the effects of gluconate or isethionate on membrane potential and/or slow wave

Smooth Muscle Lab Report
A) CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE
Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and extracellular matrix (ECM):
Blood vessels, include arteries that transport blood from the heart to the systemic circulation, and
veins that transport blood back again into the heart. A remarkable change in blood vessel structure
and function happened, with the emergence of a high–pressure, pulsatile circulatory system in
vertebrates. Blood vessels then evolved from simple tubes for channeling blood or other body fluids
from a low–pressure heart. According to their sizes and structures, arteries can be subdivided into
four categories: large elastic arteries, medium–sized muscular arteries, small arteries (s Law, the
larger the aortic diameter, the larger the wall tension ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Overall Goal: to determine aortic diameter changes and PWV during pressure waves in the intact
mouse measured under three conditions by echocardiography (measurements will be performed in
both control and MFS mice in the same conditions):
1). In the presence of systemic vasodilator (e.g. nonselective α–adrenergic antagonist phentolamine,
and or sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and forskolin to partially inhibit of smooth muscle contraction);
2). Control with an intravenous injection of isotonic saline (i.e. control condition);
3). In the presence of systemic vasoconstrictor (e.g. phenylephrine, maximal contractility condition).
Anticipated results:
We expect to see different patterns of pressure–diameter (dP/dR) relationship with similar trends to
those obtained in the ex vivo experiments as a result of dynamic smooth muscle contractile activity
during pulse pressure waves.
C) THE EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS AND PROPOSED EXPERIMENTS
1. Ex vivo isolated system: (Wire myography and pressured myography)
The following parameters will be determined in three different conditions, with various reagents
being added, in both control and MFS aortic samples ex

The Effect Of Fluid Shifts On Cardiovascular Responses
Effects of Fluid Shifts on Cardiovascular Responses
Introduction
In the human body, the flow of blood through vessels is determined by pressure differentials and
vascular resistance. There a number of feedback systems which are responsible for the regulation of
arterial pressure, dependent on autonomic nerves and circulating hormones. Moreover, depending
on the region of the body the vascular resistance is influenced by; level of sympathetic vasomotor
nerves, levels of hormones and local factors including metabolites and endothelial factors.
Additionally, resistance is dependent on the length of vessel and inversely with diameter; larger
driving force equals faster flow, and increasing resistance hinders flow. The equation below conveys
the relationship between pressure, resistance and flow.
Flow = Pressure ÷ Resistance
The main factors determining blood flow resistance are; 1) viscosity of blood; 2) length of
conducting tube and; 3) radius vessel. The equation below represents Poiseuille's law articulating the
interaction between pressure gradient, resistance, and flow in a cylindrical vessel.
Flow = Pressure Gradient x Vessel Radius ÷ Vessel Length x Fluid Viscosity
The viscosity of blood along a vessel remains almost constant. Therefore, the radius of the vessel is
the most important factor in relation to affecting the blood flow. If the radius of the vessel was to be
halved, the flow would be decreased by 16–fold; and, doubling the radius increases the volume by a
factor

Muscle And Smooth Muscle
Skeletal muscles are muscles that are attached to the skeleton. They are under voluntary control via
the somatic nervous system. In skeletal muscles once the action potential travels to the T tubule, it
causes Ca2+ channels to open. This triggers the release of Ca2+ from the terminal cisternae of the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca2+ then binds to troponin, this causes tropomyosin to move aside
exposing the actin binding sites. This allow for myosin and actin to bind. Smooth muscle is found in
the walls of blood vessels, airways and the gut. Smooth muscle also does not have striated fibers
like cardiac and skeletal muscle. In smooth muscle once there is enough calcium it will bind to a
protein called calmodulin and then bind to the myosin light

Numerous stimuli activate eNOS (via phosphorylation) to...
Numerous stimuli activate eNOS (via phosphorylation) to generate NO, including vascular
endothelial growth factor (VEGF), bradykinin and estrogen, however the most potent activators of
eNOS is shear stress, which is one of the most potent activators of eNOS.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in eNOS gene
So far, several polymorphisms in the eNOS gene have been described, some of them being linked
with the increased risk of CV diseases (Hingorani AD).
A common polymorphism in exon 7 of the endothelial NOS gene is (894G>T) (Nadaud S et al).
This results in a substitution of amino acid Glutamate to Aspartate. (894G>T) polymorphism has
been reported to be a strong risk factor for coronary artery diseases.
Studies using a reporter gene have ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
et al 2004)
The aim of this study is to evaluate the manner in which different SNPs affect the biochemical
activity of eNOS gene as well as its association with the nitrite levels in patients of Pakistani
populations.
Nitric oxide (NO) is synthesized from the amino acid L–arginine (precursor of NO) by the with the
concomitant production of L–citrulline, and the enzyme which catalyses its synthesis is called
'Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase' (eNOS). The catalysis of this reaction requires a number of
essential cofactors such as calmodulin (CaM), tetrahydrobiopterin (H4B), flavin mononucleotide,
FAD, and NADPH (.Ingrid, B. Rudy 2003).
Regulation of eNOS
Production of NO is regulated by complex regulatory pathways. All isoforms of NO–synthases are
activated when they bind with a specific calcium regulatory protein: calmodulin. iNOS tightly binds
calmodulin even at resting calcium concentrations, and then it is active once it is synthetized.
However, constitutive enzymes, eNOS and nNOS, only bind calmodulin when the intracellular
calcium concentration increase up to a certain value. Agents that increase intracellular calcium
concentration, either by allowing calcium entrance from the outside or by stimulating calcium
mobilization from intracellular stores, can activate these constitutive enzymes Inspite of this calcium
mediated regulation, recent research have shown that eNOS is also regulated by pathways that are
independent on changes in

Mechanisms Involved Into Wound Healing And Heart Function
Project Summary
Mechanisms involved in wound healing and heart function are essential for the survival of
mammalian species. The treatment of ischaemic heart disease and myocardial tissue regeneration
remains poorly understood. Mesenchymal stem cells possess the ability to differentiate into various
tissue types, including hematopoiesis, cardiogenesis, vasculogenesis, and neuronal development, as
well as endothelial progenitor cells. In addition to its multipotent capability, the mesenchymal stem
cell (MSC) can secrete and supply a large amount of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)
(Tang J et al., 2009). This response can be overexpressed, resulting in tumor formation. The
stromal–derived factor–1 alpha (SDF–1α) plays an important ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Primary research for this proposal suggests SDF–1α and VEGF play a key role in stem cell
recruitment and myocardial regeneration. Increased expression of of SDF–1α through Ad–SDF–
1alpha (adenoviral vector containing human SDF–1alpha gene under the control of the rous sarcoma
virus (RSV) promoter) through injection into myocardial tissue promotes angiogenesis in damaged
tissue. It is suggested that SDF–1 gene expression is regulated by the transcription factor hypoxia–
inducible factor–1 (HIF–1) in endothelial cells, resulting in selective in vivo expression of SDF–1 in
ischemic tissue in direct proportion to reduced oxygen tension (Ceradini DJ, 2004). VEGF secreted
by MSC's is thought to enhance expression of SDF–1α. Increased expression of SDF–1α in the
presence of transplanted MSC's could potentially promote differentiation of MSC's into myocytes,
leading to regeneration of myocardial tissue leading to improved heart function.
Specific Aims
The aim of this research is to investigate if and how co–transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells,
varying in quantity transplanted, in combination with overexpression of VEGF, SDF–1α, enhance
differentiation and recruitment leading to cardiac repair in LAD occluded rats.
The hypothesis of the following paper proposes that

The Role Of Endothelin Receptor Populations On Ventricular...
Use of Competitive Radioligand Binding to examine Endothelin Receptor Populations on
Ventricular Cardiomyocyte Membranes of Spontaneous Hypertensive Rats. Abstract
This investigation concerned the relationship between endothelin receptor populations on the
ventricular cardiomyocyte membrane of spontaneous hypertensive rats at 16 weeks old. The use of
radioligand competitive binding assay method, involving the displacement of [125I]ET–1 by 3
competitive, cold ligands, ET–1, ET–3 and BQ123, allowed for the generation of competition
binding curves, that adopted either a one–site or two–site model and allowed the determination of
relative IC50s and identification of receptor proportions. ET–3 produced a two site model
suggesting the existence of ET–A and ET–B receptors on cardiomyocyte membranes in SHRs and
calculated that around 29% of receptors were ET–B, whereas ET–1 and BQ123 both produced one–
site models.
Introduction
Endothelin peptide family is a group of 3 isoforms of a peptide, comprising of 21 amino acids, all of
which are formed from the same larger precursor, pro endothelin–1 by endothelin converting
enzyme. (Inoue A et al,1989) Each isoform is distinguished from the others by a differing gene, with
endothelin 2 and 3 differing from endothelin 1 by 2 and 6 amino acids, respectively. (Inoue A et
al,1989) Endothelin is known mostly as a potent vasopressor, but is also known to have a positive
inotropic effect on the heart, act as a proliferator of vascular smooth

Smooth Muscle Contraction
Smooth muscle cells of the ileum spontaneously contract due to the presence of pacemaker cells,
called Cajal cells (Widmaier et al., 2014d). However, these smooth muscle they are also innervated
by autonomic nerves, which can be stimulated to change contraction rates by stimulating. Figure 1,
shows the effect of nerve stimulation of 17volts on isolated ileum tissue. Stimulating sympathetic
(sympathetic nerves was stimulated for this particular tissue), causes release of noradrenaline, which
inhabits contraction of smooth muscle cells. Furthermore, according to table 1, there is a –58.83%
change in contraction amplitude. It can be extrapolated that fewer smooth muscles are contracting.
At lower voltages, a weaker response was observed, as voltage is increased a stronger response was
observed. Increasing the voltage, means more neurons are being recruited (Widmaier et al., 2014b).
In this particular experiment, stimulation of nerves around the mesenteric artery caused an inhibitory
response, therefore at higher voltages, more smooth muscles are being inhibited.
The frequency was set to 20Hz. Interstitial cells of Cajal, are responsible for spontaneous
contraction of smooth muscle cells in the gastrointestinal tract (Widmaier et al., 2014d). Once ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To confirm this finding Phentolamine, which block adrenergic receptors, was added to the organ
bath. After 10 minutes, once the Phentolamine was in equilibrium with the solution, the nerve was
stimulated again. Comparing figure 1 and 5, it can be concluded, that the nerves being stimulated
could not cause change in contraction of the muscle in the presence of Phentolamine. Thus, the
nerve being stimulated must be releasing noradrenaline. Noradrenaline, released by sympathetic
nerve causes decrease in motility, by inhibiting muscle contraction (Widmaier et al.,

The Effect Of Calcium On The Contraction Of The Smooth...
MEDSCI 305 2013 Lab 2 – Role of Calcium in Smooth Muscle Contraction 1.0 Aim The aim of this
lab was to identify the significance of calcium's role on the contraction of the smooth muscle (1 pg.
25). 2.0 Introduction The smooth muscle (SM) which is found within the wall of blood vessels
located in the veins, arteries, arterioles and capillaries. It can also be found in the stomach, intestines
and urinary bladder. It has an important function of modulating the contractility of a vessel; this is
usually controlled by mediators and hormones which are found in the sympathetic nerve terminals
(2). These mediators work by modifying the intracellular calcium stores. The two calcium sources
are the intracellular store which is found in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the extracellular stores
found on the outside of the cell (3 pg. 54). The contraction of the SM cells occurs following an
increase in intracellular calcium; this arises when mediators act on the voltage gated L–type calcium
channels. These channels open either upon response to depolarization of the cells and mediators
action on the AT1 adrenoreceptors which work by increasing the amount of inositol triphosphate,
allowing calcium to be released or by acting on ligand gated channels which open in response to
release of ATP from the nerves (3 pg 55).Following the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) is activated by calcium binding to calmodulin.
Myosin

Salbutamol And Ventolin Research Paper
Salbutamol/Ventolin Salbutamol is a generally utilized asthma solution sold under various exchange
names, including Ventolin and Proventil. It is a bronchodilator, implying that it follows up on
particular cells in the airway route to augment the air entries. Its instrument of activity, which is
through association with a particular cell receptor, the beta–2–adrenergic receptor (b–2AR), has
been seriously considered. The coupling of salbutamol to b–2AR "actuates" the receptor,
invigorating it to deliver chemicals that in the end lead to unwinding of the airway passage muscles.
Salbutamol is composed of an aromatic ring, hydroxyls and an amine and t–Butyl group. The
Ventolin inhaler is a standout amongst the most prevalent techniques for taking

Essay on The Action of Ans-Related Drugs on Smooth Muscle
The action of ANS–related drugs on smooth muscle
Introduction
In the following experiment, the key objective is to compare the mechanical changes in tonic force
by longitudinal smooth muscle after the addition of different concentrations of the drugs
noradrenaline and acetylcholine. Peristalsis is the wave of muscle contractions that allow circular
muscles to constrict the gut and longitudinal muscles to shorten it in an attempt to move the food
bolus towards the rectum. A series of dilutions were prepared for both drugs to deduce the effect this
would have on the contractions of the mammalian gut. These were added, in turn, to Ringers
solution containing the gut (a solution resembling blood serum in its salt constituents used for ...
It is distinguishable that when acetylcholine is added, the tonic force in the gut increases as the
concentration increases. This is especially true at higher concentrations of acetylcholine, eg at a
concentration of 1x10–5, the tonic force of the gut was 12.6mN. Conversely, at higher
concentrations of Noradrenaline the tonic force in the gut decreases. The gut does not show any
change in tonic force at lower concentrations, there is minimal or no change which can be
determined from the graph. The tonic force of the gut at the highest concentration of 10–5 was –
4mN which is significantly lower in comparison to what acetylcholine portrayed. So as
concentration of noradrenaline increases, the tonic force in the gut decreases whilst as concentration
of acetylcholine increases, the tonic force of the gut also increases.
Discussion
1) The results obtained demonstrate that increasing concentration of acetylcholine increases tonic
tension in the section of gut, conversely increasing noradrenaline concentration decreases tonic
tension of the gut.
2) Both drugs do not influence the rate of rhythmic contractions yet they alter force and peak. The
rate should remain fairly constant as it signifies the transmission of impulses being sent from the
nervous system, any slowing in rate would suggest deprivation of nerve supply yet this is not the
case as the same gut is used for both drugs and all concentrations.
3) The amplitude

Human Body Systems Outline
The Human Body Systems
By Yash Dhayal, Mathew Nemet, and Tom Battaglini
Table Of Contents
Overview
* Skeletal system – Functions and Parts * Muscular System – Types of Muscles * Integumentary
System – Functions * Circulatory System – Parts of the Circulatory System * Immune System –
Organs and Cells of he Immune System * Respiratory System – Parts of the Respiratory System *
Digestive System * Urinary System * Endocrine System * Nervous System
Overview * The human body itself is a complex system–many sets of interacting parts that work to
keep the human machine running. On any single day, we can estimate that your heart beats 103,689
times, your blood travels 168,000,000 miles, your digestive ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
* The lower extremity – composed of the bones of the thigh, leg, foot, and the patella (commonly
known as the kneecap). * The Shoulder Girdle (also called the Pectoral Girdle) – composed of four
bones: two clavicles (collarbones) and two scapulae (shoulder blades). * The Pelvic Girdle (also
called the hip girdle) – composed to two coxal (hip) bones.
Muscular System
Over 600 skeletal muscles function for body movement through contraction and relaxation of
voluntary, striated muscle fibers. These muscles are attached to bones, and are typically under
conscious control for locomotion, facial expressions, posture, and other body movements. Muscles
account for approximately 40 percent of body weight. The metabolism that occurs in this large
mass–produces heat essential for the maintenance of body temperature
Types of Muscles
The types of muscles are: * Cardiac muscle * Smooth muscle * Skeletal muscle
Cardiac Muscle * Cardiac muscle is only in the heart and makes up the atria and ventricles (heart
walls). Like skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle contains striated fibers. Cardiac muscle is called
involuntary muscle because conscious thought does not control its contractions. Specialized cardiac
muscle cells maintain a consistent heart rate.

Smooth muscle * Smooth muscle is throughout the body, including in visceral (internal) organs,
blood vessels, and glands. Like cardiac muscle,

Activity of Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle Essay
INTRODUCTION
Give a brief description in your own words of the objectives and aims of this practical.
The aim of this practical is to investigate how the autonomic nervous system (ANS) affects the
motility in the gastrointestinal tract, by experimenting with the release of neurotransmitters.
A. RESPONSES TO NERVE STIMULATION
 Attach a copy of your experimental recordings showing a period of spontaneous contractions and
the response to stimulating the nerves at 20 Hz with both a voltage that produced only a modest
response and the voltage that produced the maximal response.
1) Briefly describe the response of the ileum when it is unstimulated and during stimulation of the
nerves.
It is shown that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Is it always inhibitory in vivo? What happens in the intact animal?
C. BLOCKING AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM TRANSMITTER TARGETS
Effect of phentolamine on the responses to nerve stimulation and added transmitter substances
 Attach copies of your experimental recordings showing the response of the ileum to nerve
stimulation and to the direct addition of noradrenaline and acetylcholine, in the presence of
phentolamine.
1) What was phentolamine's main effect? How does it produce this effect?
2) What two explanations could account for the fact that the test concentration of phentolamine only
partly blocked the inhibitory responses to noradrenaline and nerve stimulation?
3) How would you design an experiment to distinguish between these two possibilities?
4) In some tissues there may be a reversal of the response to nerve stimulation in the presence of
phentolamine (i.e. excitation instead of inhibition). Explain how this could occur.
5) Sometimes phentolamine also reduces the effect of acetylcholine. What important drawback to
the use of drugs as tools for investigating physiological mechanisms does this illustrate?

Effect of atropine on the responses to nerve stimulation and added transmitter substances
 Attach copies of your experimental

Parasympathetic And Strengths
1) Describe the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems on the smooth
muscles of the eye
The smooth muscles of the eye are mainly controlled by the parasympathetic nervous system. The
activation of the parasympathetic system will cause the release of acetylcholine (Ach), which will
act on the m2 muscarinic receptors in the iris smooth muscle fibres. This will cause the pupil to
constrict, reducing the amount of light able to enter the eye. The release of Ach will also act on the
m2 muscarinic receptors in the ciliary muscle, causing them to contract, relaxing the shape of the
lens in the eye (Rang and Dale, 2012). Therefore, the overall effect of the release of Ach will
constrict the pupil, reducing the amount of light entering the eye, this is known as miosis (University
of Sydney, 2017). This differs from the activation of the sympathetic nervous system which will
cause the release of noradrenaline, which acts on the ⍺1–receptors in the radial smooth muscle
fibres of the iris (dilator pupillae), causing it to contract. The release or noradrenaline will also act
on the β2–receptors of the ciliary muscle causing them to relax, causing the lens to lengthen,
however this is only a faint response(Rang and Dale, 2012). Hence, the contraction of the iris
sphincter and slight relaxation of the ciliary muscles will cause the pupil of the eye to be dilated,
increasing the amount of the light able to enter the eye, this is known as mydriasis (University

Aortic Smooth Muscle Thesis
"Influence of low shear and cyclic strain on hyperglycemic rat aortic smooth muscle cells: An In
Vitro dynamic disease model"
____________________________________________________________________________ A
Thesis Presented to The Graduate School of Clemson University
____________________________________________________________________________ In
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Masters of Science Bioengineering
____________________________________________________________________________ By
Varun Chawla July 2015
____________________________________________________________________________
Thesis committee Dr. Martine LaBerge, Committee Chair Dr. Agneta Simionescu Dr. Dan
Simionescu Abstract Vascular complications are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality
amongst diabetic patients which represent a major proportion of patients undergoing coronary artery
revascularization. Major advances in drug eluting stent technologies have reduced the overall rates
of restenosis in general however diabetic patients still remain at a high risk thus requiring target
lesion revascularization more commonly as compared to non–diabetic cohort. Phenotypic
modulation demonstrated by smooth ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Lumen loss after balloon angioplasty can be separated into 3 distinct stages: Early loss associated
with elastic recoil, late loss due to negative remodeling, and neointimal hyperplasia. Elastic recoil
occurs immediately following angioplasty with reports of 34% loss in lumen diameter within 15
minutes of balloon inflation and may account for up to 50% of loss in the acute lumen gain after
angioplasty

Similarities and Differences between Seletal, Cardiac, and...
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SELETAL, CARDIAC, AND SMOOTH
MUSCLE:
Skeletal Muscle Structure: skeletal muscles cells are like long fiber structures, That contain many
nuclei and are subdivided into smaller structures that are called "myofibrils". The "Myofibrils" are
created of two kinds of "myofilaments". Thin filaments are made of two strands of the protein–actin
and one strand of a regulatory protein coiled with each other. Thick filaments are staggered arrays of
"myosin molecules". * Organization Units of skeletal muscle. Filaments are organized into
structures called the "sarcomeres". "Sarcomeres" are created in the following manners: * The Z lines
are at the border of the "sarcomere". They align in adjacent "myofibrils". *The I bands are areas that
are near the edges of the "sarcomere" containing only thin filament. * The A bands are regions
where thick and thin filaments overlap each other and correspond to the length of the thick
filament.* The H zones are the areas in the center of the A bands containing only thick filament. In
vertebrates Cardiac Muscles: are only found in the heart. Muscles cells are branched, and the
junctions between the cells contain intercalated discs that electrically connect all heart muscle cells
with each other, allowing the co–ordinated actions. These cells can also create their own action
potentials. In Smooth Muscles: There are no striations and contain less myosin; the myosin is not
associated with specific actin strand.

Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle Report
Smooth muscle founded in the gastrointestinal tract of the Northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens,
contracts through myogenic activity. However, neurotransmitters from the parasympathetic and the
sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous can influence the strength of these myogenic
contractions. To explore myogenic activity under the influence of the autonomic control, we
examined the contractile activity with and without additions of chemical compounds associated with
the autonomic nervous system. We also wanted to observe contractile activity under the influence of
mechanical stimulus by manually stretching the gastrointestinal smooth muscle. With the addition of
acetylcholine and eserine a significant increase in contraction amplitude and ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The addition of acetylcholine caused a significant increase in contraction amplitude from 0.00983 +
0.00109 N (N=3) to 0.0740 + 0.00807 N (N=3) (Fig. 1). It also caused a significant increase in
contraction duration from 17.3 + 1.44 s (N=3) to 47 + 10.5 s (N=3), the maximum duration observed
(Fig 3). The second compound added was eseine. The amplitude of these contractions significantly
increased to 0.117 + 0.0126 N (N=3), the maximum amplitude observed (Fig. 1). The frequency of
contractions also significantly increased from 1.67 + 0.577 (N=3) to 3 + 0 (N=3), the maximum
frequency observed (Fig. 2). Moreover, contraction duration significantly increased to 41.8 + 5.01 s
(N=3) when compared to the baseline (Fig. 3). There was a third and fourth treatment that added the
chemical compounds atropine and epinephrine respectively, but due to the flat lining of the
gastrointestinal smooth muscle, measurements were not obtained. After the manual stretch of the
gastrointestinal smooth muscle only one contraction was observed. The amplitude of these stretches
decreased to 0.00167 + 0.000404 N (N=3), the minimum amplitude observed

Skeletal Muscle, Cardiac Muscle And Smooth Muscle
Contents Page
Introduction 4
In Brief: Skeletal Muscle, Cardiac Muscle & Smooth Muscle Image 1.0 Anatomy Of Smooth
Muscle
Table – Basic Muscle Comparison 5 Note: See Appendix For Further Detail. Image 1.1 Muscle Cell
Variations Image 2 Stimulus Transmission Image 3 Axon Junction 6
Events At The Neuromuscular Junction And Of A Synaptic Transmission
Skeletal Muscle In More Detail Including: Fascia Epimysium, Perimysium, Endomysium,
Aponeurons 7 Periosteum
Image 4: Structure Of A Muscle Fibre
Myofibres, Sarcolemma, Sarcoplasm, Mitochondria
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, Terminal Cisternae
Transverse Tubules.
Sarcomeres 8 Including: Myosin, Actin, Tropomyosin, Troponin, Titin & Z–Lines. Image 5:
Sarcomere 1. Image 6: Sarcomere 2.
Muscle Contraction 9 Sliding Filament Theory Image 7: Sliding Filament Theory 10
How Muscles Resist Contraction
Connective Tissue
Smooth Muscle Variation 11
Isometric Contraction
Isotonic Contraction 12 Image 8: Isotonic & Isometric Contraction Image 9: Concentric And
Eccentric Contraction
Muscle Attachment Including: Origin, Insertion, Agonist, Antagonist & Synergists.
Metabolism Of Muscle Including: Phosphagen System, 13 Muscle Types:

The Muscular System: The Functions Of The Muscular System
The Muscular system is an important bodily system that we need to survive. This system is
composed of it's 3 major organs which are the skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles. These organs
work day and night with no rest to keep us alive. The Muscular system also produces internal and
external movement throughout the body, and just with this, there are still many more functions it
has.
Out of the 650 small organs in this system that we have discovered, there are only 3 major organs.
These organs are skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscles. Each of the muscles have
their own function, but yet they all tie in together. The skeletal muscles help you move the body, the
smooth muscles help determine the flow of blood throughout the arteries, and cardiac muscles ...
One of these many functions is to allow movement throughout the body. If the muscular system
didn't allow this around the skeletal system, we wouldn't be able to do many things. These things
include breathing, moving our arms to eat, and moving our legs to walk. Another one of the
functions it carries out is pumping blood throughout the body. Yes, most people think the heart is
used to do this, which it is, but the reason it can do so is because of cardiac muscles and the
muscular system. The cardiac muscles, which take up most of the heart's mass, gives the heart a
pace to pump blood and keep blood flowing. Keeping blood flowing and determining the flow of
blood is also a job of the muscular system. Smooth muscles are lined around the digestive tracts and
the internal organs throughout the body. The smooth muscles also help a mother push out a baby in
the uterus and in the bladder, helps push out urine or blood. Even with the multiple functions I
named, the muscular system still performs many more functions internally for the human

Treatment Regimen: A Case Study
Treatment Regimen
Activity
The patient was ordered to remain on bed rest indefinitely; his current state is not stable enough for
him to attempt ambulation even with maximum assistance from occupational therapist. Until the
patient was allowed to mobilize, active range of motion (AROM) exercises were performed to the
best of the patient's ability with assistance from OT, nursing staff, or wife. Passive ranges of motion
(PROM) exercises were performed on weaker limbs or if patient were too tired to perform AROM
exercises. These exercises were performed several times per day.
Speech Therapy A speech therapy was consulted to conduct a swallow test and evaluate the patient's
dysphagia and risk for aspiration. Dysphagia in patients with altered mental status is most likely
caused by the decrease in the patient's level of consciousness (Lewis et al., 2007). Upon assessing
the patient and performing a swallow test the speech therapist suggested that the patient remain
nothing by mouth (NPO) but said that he is able to have 5 ice chips per hour one at a time. They also
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The patient received albumin one time to help increase his albumin levels because his lab results
showed his albumin levels were decreased, it was discontinued after initial dose. The mechanism of
action of albumin works by exerting colloidal oncotic pressure, which expands volume of
circulating blood by pulling fluid from extravascular to intravascular spaces, and maintains cardiac
output (Vallerand, A. H., & Sanoski, C. A. 2013).
Amlodipine. The patient received this medication once daily to help decrease his blood pressure.
The mechanism of action of amlodipine is to inhibit calcium ion influx across cell membrane during
cardiac depolarization; produces relaxation of coronary vascular smooth muscle and peripheral
vascular smooth muscle; dilates coronary vascular arteries; increases myocardial oxygen delivery in
patients with vasospastic angina (Vallerand et al.,

Simple Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial Tissue:
Epithelial tissues line and cover the organs, capillaries and body cavities within the body. Epithelial
tissues can be broken down into four types: Simple Squamous, Simple Cuboidal, Transitional and
Stratified Squamous. Epithelial tissues are named first by their amount of layers they have, and
second by the cell shape.
Simple Epithelial tissues are composed of only one layer of cells, while stratified tissues are
composed of more than one layer of cells. Squamous tissues are flat as compared to cuboidal or
cube shaped tissues. The final tissue is called columnar, and these cells have a column like shape.
Simple Squamous:
Simple squamous tissues are composed of one flat layer of cells. Simple squamous cells line air
sacs, kidneys and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Epithelial tissue can be broken down into four types of tissues: simple squamous, simple cuboidal,
transitional and stratifies squamous. While these tissues differ in structure, they work together to
complete the main function of protecting the organs of the body. Connective tissue supports,
insulates, and stores energy for the body. Theses tissues can be broken into four types of tissues:
adipose, hyaline cartilage, areolar and bone. These four tissues collaborate to ensure the proper
protection, insulation and energy storage for the organs, bones and muscles of the human body.
Muscle tissue provides the body with movement through the contraction and relaxation of muscles.
These tissues can be further divided into three types of tissues: smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and
cardiac muscle. Each type of muscle provides movement for the different parts of the body,
including the heart, muscles, bones and the movement of food and liquids in the digestive tract.
Finally, the nervous tissue controls the messages that are sent throughout the body and forming the
nervous

Smooth Muscle Contraction Research Paper
Noradrenaline is chemical transmitter at the post–ganglionic sympathetic nerve ending and also
adrenaline from the medulla of the adrenal gland. This happens from the stimulation of the
sympathetic nervous system. Combined actions of both adrenaline and noradrenaline you get these
major physiological responses to sympathetic stimulation;
Contraction of the smooth muscle (example. Blood vessels, pupil of the eye) – actions of both
adrenaline and noradrenaline effects result in stimulating alpha (A)–receptors located on the smooth
muscle cells. The most important action is on the vascular smooth muscle; large arteries and veins as
well as arterioles are constricted, from this it results in decreased vascular compliance, increased
central venous pressure and increased peripheral resistance. These all contribute to an increase in
systolic and diastolic arterial pressure. (a)–receptors involved in smooth muscle contraction are
mainly a1 in type, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The twitch tension of fast–contracting fibres (white muscle) is increased by adrenaline, particularly
if the muscle is fatigued. Whereas the twitch of slow (red) muscle is reduced. These effects depend
on an action on the contractile proteins, rather than on the membrane and the mechanism is poorly
understood. In humans, adrenaline and other b2–agonists cause a marked tremor: shakiness that
accompanies fear, excitement or the excessive use of b2–agonists (example: salbutamol) in the
treatment of asthma examples of this. This results from an increase in muscle spindle discharge,
coupled with an effect on the contraction kinetics of the fibres, these effects combining to produce
an instability in the reflex control of muscle length. Beta–receptor antagonists are sometimes used to
control pathological tremor. The b2–agonists also cause long–term changes in the expression of the
sarcoplasmic reticular proteins that can control contraction of skeletal

Actions of Drugs
Actions of drugs on cardiovascular preparations
Introducion
The experiment outlined in this report was carried out with the intention to observe and explore the
effects of certain named drugs on a vascular preparation, in the cardiac region specifically. The
cardiovascular preparation used in this experiment was an isolation of the descending aorta of a rat.
This isolate is particularly useful as it mirrors the responses that would be observed in a human
sample, thus this experiment will give rise to conclusions applicable to humans. The drugs which
will be tested are as follows: acetylcholine, adrenaline, 5–hydroxytryptamine, isoprenaline,
noradrenaline and sodium nitroprusside. As the preparation, inherently was not in a live ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the added drug would be diluted in the organ bath it was important to calculate doses with that in
mind. Accordingly all calculations were made with the view of the end result, the final bath
concentration (FBC). To achieve the correct final bath concentration it was assumed that the organ
bath had a 25ml volume and then the corresponding quantity and concentration of drug was added.
As an example, 0.25 ml of 10μmol/l concentration of drug X was added to ~24.75ml of Krebs'
solution to achieve a 1 in 100 dilution resulting in a final bath concentration of 0.1μmol/l.
Hence, the experimental procedure was executed as detailed here. A syringe fitted with a
hypodermic needle was used to infuse the drug into the organ bath away from the tissue sample. To
help maintain fair testing conditions it was done such that throughout the experiment the drug was
injected at the same speed at the same location. Prior to injecting, the syringe was checked for
bubbles of air accidentally acquired during uptake of the drug, as this would cause alterations in
volume of drug and thus alterations in FBC. Time at which the drug was added was recorded using
the Biopac software. Subsequently, two minutes was allowed for the interactions and binding of the
drug to occur, in which time the live recordings were monitored for changes. Once sufficient time
was allowed to see a significant change in

Function, Structure, Synthesis And The Use Of The Protein...
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the function, structure, synthesis and the use of the protein
elastin (ELN), which encodes for one of the two elements of elastic fibers in the human body (NCBI
1). Addressing the fundamental aspects of the protein will allow us to explore the potential
applications and implications of the protein if it has been modified.
Introduction and Function
Elastin is the one of the key components in the elastic property of tissues found in human tissues
such as arteries, lungs, and elastic cartilage to name a few (Jacob, Sauvage, Osbourne 1). Elastin is
mainly composed of amino acids glycine and proline, which are hydrophobic and are combined with
lysine residues in crosslinks (NCBI 1). It plays a fundamental role in the recoil of tissues after being
stretched, which is critical in maintaining the cells health (Weiss 1). Thirty percent of the dry weight
of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in arteries is comprised of the protein elastin, hence, making it an
essential part of human tissue (Krettek, Sukhova, Libby 1). Elastin can be found abundantly in the
dermis of the skin, the arterial walls, the pulmonary tissues, which helps with the expansion of the
lungs upon breathing and the recoil upon exhaling (Krettek, Sukhova, Libby 1). Elastin in the skin is
elastic tissue intertwined with other components in the dermis through fibers that are interconnected
(Krettek, Sukhova, Libby 1). The skin is dense with elastic tissue, which allows for the

Three Different Kinds Of Muscles : Skeletal, Cardiac And...
Introduction: The body consists of three different kinds of muscles: skeletal, cardiac and smooth
muscle. Skeletal muscle, which is the primary focus of this lab, is made up of much smaller muscle
fibers. These muscle fibers have smaller units called myofibrils followed by the smallest contractile
unit of a muscle fiber called the sarcomere. Furthermore, the sarcomere is composed of two filament
types– thick filaments, called myosin and thin filaments called actin. In order for muscle contraction
to occur, these two filaments must bind to form cross bridges. These cross bridges are formed
through the interaction of the actin and myosin head along with calcium ions and ATP molecules.
The formation and reformation of these cross bridges is what is known as cross bridge cycling and is
what is responsible for repeated muscle contraction in the same sarcomere. Muscle contractions only
occur when they receive action potentials from nerve cells called motor neurons. These motor
neurons synapse directly onto muscle cells– sometimes even innervating multiple muscle cells. If
there is a need for stronger contraction, motor neurons can be recruited to aid in the increase of
muscle contraction. A concept known as motor unit recruitment. Typically, motor unit recruitment
goes from the smaller units, which innervate smaller muscles, to larger units which innervate larger
muscles. This is known as the Henneman's size principle. However, for the purposes of this
experiment, when

Smooth Muscle Cell Contraction Lab Report
Contractility of ASM requires an increased levels of intracellular Ca2+. When surface receptors are
not activated, Ca2+ levels are low. Upon activation of these cell surface receptors by contractile
agonists e.g. acetylcholine, serotonin and histamine, intracellular Ca2+ increases causing a
contraction (9). Smooth muscle cell contraction is controlled by both receptor and mechanical
activation of proteins actin and myosin and also changes to membrane potential.
Ca2+ dependant contraction of smooth muscle mechanism
When a stimulus is applied to smooth muscle, it causes an action potential, depolarizing the plasma
membrane. Voltage gated calcium channels open allowing calcium into the cell. This increases
calcium levels in smooth muscle cells.

Earthworm Smooth Muscle Lab Report
Earthworm Smooth Muscle
In this experiment, contractions of the earthworm gut are measured in an organ bath with a force
transducer. The effect of neurotransmitters and ionic concentrations on contraction strength and rate
will be investigated.
Written by staff of ADInstruments
With acknowledgement to: Dr. Stuart I. Cromarty, Department of Natural Sciences, Assumption
College, Worcester, MA, USA.
[pic]
Background
Smooth muscle is one of three muscle fiber types found in animals. Unlike skeletal and cardiac
muscle cells, smooth muscle cells are not striated, and have single nuclei. Smooth muscles are
typically under control of the autonomic nervous system, and do not contract voluntarily. Smooth
muscle contracts slowly, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Dissection: exposing the gut
1. Remove the earthworm from the ethanol and place it on a dissection tray.
2. Pin the earthworm to the tray using one pin on either end of the worm.
3. Moisten the earthworm with room temperature earthworm saline. You must keep the worm moist
at all times during the dissection.
4. Locate the clitellum (copulatory organ); this structure is closest to the anterior of the earthworm.
5. Using fine pointed scissors, carefully make a shallow incision in the clitellum. Make this incision
to the side of the midline; this techniques will prevent you from cutting into the gut. NOTE: It is
essential not to cut deeply during the dissection; you will damage the gut tissue. If you tear the gut,
obtain another earthworm and start over.
6. Continue cutting the skin of the earthworm towards the anterior end. It is best to use an upward–
pointing direction with the scissors. As you cut the skin, pin back the skin to expose the gut.

7. When you have successfully opened the earthworm, inspect the gut and moisten the worm with
earthworm saline. If the gut is not damaged, continue with the next step.
Dissection: removing the gut
1. With the gut exposed, use a blunt probe to dissect away the septa that connect the underside of the
gut to the body wall. You only need to expose 3–5 cm of the anterior gut.
2. When the gut is loosened from the body wall, again

Essay Activity of Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle Worksheet
Activity of Gastrointestinal Smooth Muscle: Worksheet
Please Ensure That You Have Completed The Calculations In Tables 1–3 Before You Answer The
Worksheet Questions
Table 1. The effects of phentolamine and atropine on the contractile response to nerve stimulation
(20 Hz) in the isolated rabbit ileum
| |Contraction amplitude |Contraction amplitude with the |Effect of nerve stimulation on the
contraction amplitude |
| |pre–nerve stimulation |maximum response to nerve | |
| | |stimulation |PLEASE SHOW YOUR CALCULATIONS ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The effects of phentolamine and atropine on the contractile response to acetylcholine in the isolated
rabbit ileum
| | |Contraction amplitude with the | |
| |Contraction amplitude |maximum response to |Effect of acetylcholine on the contraction amplitude
|
| |pre– acetylcholine |acetylcholine | |
| | | |PLEASE SHOW YOUR CALCULATIONS |
| |Maximum – Minimum |Maximum – Minimum |Express the effect of acetylcholine as % change
(from |
|

Skeletal Muscle Vs Smooth Muscle

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Skeletal Muscle Vs Smooth Muscle

Similar to Skeletal Muscle Vs Smooth Muscle (9)

More from Sheri Elliott

More from Sheri Elliott (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Skeletal Muscle Vs Smooth Muscle