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What are Research Ethics? Why are Research Ethics Important? General Ethical Principles Ethical Decision Making in Research Ethical Standards for Human Research.
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Ethical principles in research
- 1. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018
- 2. Topics CoveredTopics Covered Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, What are Research Ethics?What are Research Ethics? Why are Research EthicsWhy are Research Ethics Important?Important? General Ethical PrinciplesGeneral Ethical Principles Ethical Decision Making inEthical Decision Making in ResearchResearch Ethical Standards for HumanEthical Standards for Human Research.Research.
- 3. Research ethics are a set ofResearch ethics are a set of principles about how researchersprinciples about how researchers and research organizations shouldand research organizations should conduct themselves when dealingconduct themselves when dealing with research participants, otherwith research participants, other researchers and colleagues, theresearchers and colleagues, the users of their research andusers of their research and society in general.society in general. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, What are Research Ethics?What are Research Ethics?
- 4. Why are Research Ethics Important?Why are Research Ethics Important? Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, • Respect and cause no harm to theRespect and cause no harm to the participants.participants. • Respect for other researchers and thoseRespect for other researchers and those who will use the research.who will use the research. • It is a requirement to obtain fundingIt is a requirement to obtain funding • Keeping data secure and confidentialKeeping data secure and confidential • Making procedures, methods and findingsMaking procedures, methods and findings transparenttransparent • Safety and riskSafety and risk • Consult guidelines and codes of conductConsult guidelines and codes of conduct relevant to the research being conducted.relevant to the research being conducted.
- 5. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, General Ethical PrinciplesGeneral Ethical Principles • HonestyHonesty • ObjectivityObjectivity • IntegrityIntegrity • CarefulnessCarefulness • OpennessOpenness • CompetenceCompetence • DisclosureDisclosure • LegalityLegality • ConsentConsent • Respect for Intellectual PropertyRespect for Intellectual Property • ConfidentialityConfidentiality • Responsible PublicationResponsible Publication • Responsible MentoringResponsible Mentoring • Respect for colleaguesRespect for colleagues • Social ResponsibilitySocial Responsibility • Non-DiscriminationNon-Discrimination • Animal CareAnimal Care • Human Subjects ProtectionHuman Subjects Protection
- 6. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, EthicalDecisionMakinginResearch • Publishing the same paper in two differentPublishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors;journals without telling the editors; • Submitting the same paper to different journalsSubmitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors;without telling the editors; • Not informing a collaborator of your intent toNot informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you arefile a patent in order to make sure that you are the sole inventor;the sole inventor; • Including a colleague as an author on a paper inIncluding a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the colleague didreturn for a favor even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper;not make a serious contribution to the paper; • Discussing with your colleagues confidential dataDiscussing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that you are reviewing for afrom a paper that you are reviewing for a journal;journal; • Using an inappropriate statistical technique inUsing an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of yourorder to enhance the significance of your research;research;
- 7. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, EthicalDecisionMakinginResearch • Bypassing the peer review process and announcingBypassing the peer review process and announcing results through a press conference without givingresults through a press conference without giving peers adequate information to review work;peers adequate information to review work; • Conducting a review of the literature that fails toConducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other people in theacknowledge the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work;field or relevant prior work; • Giving the same research project to two graduateGiving the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the fastest;students in order to see who can do it the fastest; • Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate orOverworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students;post-doctoral students; • Failing to keep good research records;Failing to keep good research records; • Failing to maintain research data for a reasonableFailing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time;period of time; • Making derogatory comments and personal attacks inMaking derogatory comments and personal attacks in review of author's submission;review of author's submission; • Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors;Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors;
- 8. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, EthicalDecisionMakinginResearch • Not reporting an adverse event in a humanNot reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment;research experiment; • Wasting animals in research;Wasting animals in research; • Exposing students and staff to biological risks inExposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of institution’s biosafety rules;violation of institution’s biosafety rules; • Rejecting a manuscript for publication withoutRejecting a manuscript for publication without even reading it;even reading it; • Sabotaging someone’s work;Sabotaging someone’s work; • Stealing supplies, books, or data;Stealing supplies, books, or data; • Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, orMaking unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs;computer programs; • Deliberately overestimating the clinicalDeliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtainsignificance of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits.economic benefits.
- 9. SMS Kabir, University of ChittagongSMS Kabir, University of Chittagong Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Unfair Discrimination:Unfair Discrimination: Do not engage inDo not engage in unfair discrimination based on age,unfair discrimination based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity,gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexualculture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, socioeconomicorientation, disability, socioeconomic status, or any basis proscribed by law.status, or any basis proscribed by law. Sexual Harassment:Sexual Harassment: Sexual harassmentSexual harassment is sexual solicitation, physical advances,is sexual solicitation, physical advances, or verbal or nonverbal conduct that isor verbal or nonverbal conduct that is sexual in nature.sexual in nature. Ethical Standards for Human ResearchEthical Standards for Human Research Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Chittagong- 4203, Bangladesh.
- 10. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Ethical Standards for Human ResearchEthical Standards for Human Research Other Harassment:Other Harassment: Harassing basedHarassing based on age, gender, gender identity, race,on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin,ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability,religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status.language, or socioeconomic status. Avoiding Harm:Avoiding Harm: Take reasonableTake reasonable steps to avoid harm towards otherssteps to avoid harm towards others with whom they work, and to minimizewith whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable andharm where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.unavoidable.
- 11. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Ethical Standards for Human ResearchEthical Standards for Human Research Multiple Relationships:Multiple Relationships: Clarify role expectationsClarify role expectations and the extent of confidentiality and thereafter asand the extent of confidentiality and thereafter as changes occur.changes occur. Conflict of Interest:Conflict of Interest: Expose the person orExpose the person or organization with whom the professional relationshiporganization with whom the professional relationship exists to harm or exploitation.exists to harm or exploitation. Third-Party Requests for Services:Third-Party Requests for Services: Clarify at theClarify at the outset of the service the nature of the relationshipoutset of the service the nature of the relationship with all individuals or organizations involved.with all individuals or organizations involved. Exploitative Relationships:Exploitative Relationships: Do not exploit personsDo not exploit persons over whom they have supervisory, evaluative, orover whom they have supervisory, evaluative, or other authority such as clients/patients, students,other authority such as clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, and employees.supervisees, research participants, and employees.
- 12. Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Ethical Standards for Human ResearchEthical Standards for Human Research Maintaining Confidentiality:Maintaining Confidentiality: Primary obligationPrimary obligation and take reasonable precautions to protectand take reasonable precautions to protect confidential information obtained through orconfidential information obtained through or stored in any medium.stored in any medium. Informed Consent:Informed Consent: Appropriately documentAppropriately document written or oral consent, permission, and assent.written or oral consent, permission, and assent. Interruption of Services:Interruption of Services: Unless otherwiseUnless otherwise covered by contract, make reasonable efforts tocovered by contract, make reasonable efforts to plan for facilitating services.plan for facilitating services. Cooperation with Other Professionals:Cooperation with Other Professionals: WhenWhen indicated and professionally appropriate, cooperateindicated and professionally appropriate, cooperate with other professionals in order to serve theirwith other professionals in order to serve their clients/patients effectively and appropriately.clients/patients effectively and appropriately.
- 13. QuestionsQuestions AnswersAnswersReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). BasicReference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An IntroductoryGuidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book ZoneApproach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8,Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Wednesday, January 31, 2018Wednesday, January 31, 2018
- 14. Wednesday, January 31, 2018 Reference Book: Kabir, SMS (2016). Basic Guidelines for Research: An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines. Book Zone Publication, ISBN: 978-984-33-9565-8, Chittagong-4203, Bangladesh.
Editor's Notes
- Course Code: LLM 2002 Course Title: Research Methodology Course Teacher: Syed Md. Sajjad Kabir Assistant Professor and Chairman Department of Psychology University of Chittagong Chittagong -4331
- What are Research Ethics? Why are Research Ethics Important? General Ethical Principles Ethical Decision Making in Research Ethical Standards for Human Research.
- What are Research Ethics? Research ethics are a set of principles about how researchers and research organizations should conduct themselves when dealing with research participants, other researchers and colleagues, the users of their research and society in general. Particularly relevant to the social sciences are ethics associated with projects involving human participants, including conducting surveys, focus groups and the use of secondary data. Typical considerations include – Recruiting study participants and informed consent Keeping data secure and confidential Making procedures, methods and findings transparent so that they can be assessed Safety and risk Consult guidelines and codes of conduct relevant to the research being conducted.
- Why are Research Ethics Important? It is important to conduct research in line with ethical standards for a number of reasons – In order to respect and cause no harm to the participants. As a sign of respect for other researchers and those who will use the research. It is a professional requirement particularly in some disciplines and failure to do so may result in disciplinary procedures. It is a requirement to obtain funding. Failing to conduct research ethically could be embarrassing or result in research (or the researcher) being dismissed or rejected by the research community. Research involving human beings, including using questionnaires and focus groups, must be passed by an Ethics Committee whose job it is to confirm that the research conforms to a set of ethical guidelines. If ethics are considered, this should make sure that the work is acceptable to the research community and other users of the research results.
- General Ethical Principles Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science), Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility (American Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors), the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association). The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various codes address - Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research. Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals. Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize. Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records. Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions. Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy. Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity. Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole. Disclosure: The potential participant must be informed as fully as possible of the nature and purpose of the research, the procedures to be used, the expected benefits to the participant and/or society, the potential of reasonably foreseeable risks, stresses, and discomforts, and alternatives to participating in the research. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies. Consent: The potential human subject must authorize his/her participation in the research study, preferably in writing, although at times an oral consent or assent may be more appropriate. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments. Human Subjects Protection: When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
- Ethical Decision Making in Research Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules. There are many other activities that the government does not define as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are called "other deviations" from acceptable research practices and include - Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors; Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors; Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you are the sole inventor; Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper; Discussing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal; Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper; Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of your research; Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results through a press conference without giving peers adequate information to review your work; Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work; Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers that your project will make a significant contribution to the field; Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita; Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the fastest; Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students; Failing to keep good research records; Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time; Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author's submission; Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors; Using a racist epithet in the laboratory; Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved by your institution's Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research without telling the committee or the board; Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment; Wasting animals in research; Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of your institution’s biosafety rules; Rejecting a manuscript for publication without even reading it; Sabotaging someone’s work; Stealing supplies, books, or data; Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out; Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs; Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits These actions would be regarded as unethical by most scientists and some might even be illegal. Most of these would also violate different professional ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they do not fall into the narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research misconduct. However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category "other serious deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government officials have chosen to limit their focus. Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done. In these situations, there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. These situations create difficult decisions for research known as ethical dilemmas.
- Ethical Decision Making in Research Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules. There are many other activities that the government does not define as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are called "other deviations" from acceptable research practices and include - Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors; Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors; Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you are the sole inventor; Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper; Discussing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal; Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper; Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of your research; Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results through a press conference without giving peers adequate information to review your work; Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work; Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers that your project will make a significant contribution to the field; Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita; Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the fastest; Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students; Failing to keep good research records; Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time; Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author's submission; Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors; Using a racist epithet in the laboratory; Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved by your institution's Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research without telling the committee or the board; Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment; Wasting animals in research; Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of your institution’s biosafety rules; Rejecting a manuscript for publication without even reading it; Sabotaging someone’s work; Stealing supplies, books, or data; Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out; Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs; Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits These actions would be regarded as unethical by most scientists and some might even be illegal. Most of these would also violate different professional ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they do not fall into the narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research misconduct. However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category "other serious deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government officials have chosen to limit their focus. Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done. In these situations, there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. These situations create difficult decisions for research known as ethical dilemmas.
- Ethical Decision Making in Research Although codes, policies, and principals are very important and useful, like any set of rules, they do not cover every situation, they often conflict, and they require considerable interpretation. It is therefore important for researchers to learn how to interpret, assess, and apply various research rules and how to make decisions and to act in various situations. The vast majority of decisions involve the straightforward application of ethical rules. There are many other activities that the government does not define as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are called "other deviations" from acceptable research practices and include - Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors; Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors; Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you are the sole inventor; Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper; Discussing with your colleagues confidential data from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal; Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper; Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of your research; Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results through a press conference without giving peers adequate information to review your work; Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field or relevant prior work; Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers that your project will make a significant contribution to the field; Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita; Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the fastest; Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students; Failing to keep good research records; Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time; Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author's submission; Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors; Using a racist epithet in the laboratory; Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved by your institution's Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research without telling the committee or the board; Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment; Wasting animals in research; Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of your institution’s biosafety rules; Rejecting a manuscript for publication without even reading it; Sabotaging someone’s work; Stealing supplies, books, or data; Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out; Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs; Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits These actions would be regarded as unethical by most scientists and some might even be illegal. Most of these would also violate different professional ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they do not fall into the narrow category of actions that the government classifies as research misconduct. However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category "other serious deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations, it is understandable why government officials have chosen to limit their focus. Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done. In these situations, there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may conflict. These situations create difficult decisions for research known as ethical dilemmas.
- Ethical Standards for Human Research There are several ethical issues that must be considered when designing research that will utilize participants who are human beings (American Psychological Association, 2010). Unfair Discrimination: In their work-related activities, psychologists do not engage in unfair discrimination based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, socioeconomic status, or any basis proscribed by law. Sexual Harassment: Psychologists do not engage in sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is sexual solicitation, physical advances, or verbal or nonverbal conduct that is sexual in nature, that occurs in connection with the psychologist's activities or roles as a psychologist, and that either (1) is unwelcome, is offensive, or creates a hostile workplace or educational environment, and the psychologist knows or is told this or (2) is sufficiently severe or intense to be abusive to a reasonable person in the context. Sexual harassment can consist of a single intense or severe act or of multiple persistent or pervasive acts.
- Other Harassment: Psychologists do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing or demeaning to persons with whom they interact in their work based on factors such as those persons' age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or socioeconomic status. Avoiding Harm: Psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming their clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others with whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable and unavoidable.
- Multiple Relationships: (a) A multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist is in a professional role with a person and (i) at the same time is in another role with the same person, (ii) at the same time is in a relationship with a person closely associated with or related to the person with whom the psychologist has the professional relationship, or (iii) promises to enter into another relationship in the future with the person or a person closely associated with or related to the person. A psychologist refrains from entering into a multiple relationship if the multiple relationships could reasonably be expected to impair the psychologist's objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing his or her functions as a psychologist, or otherwise risks exploitation or harm to the person with whom the professional relationship exists. Multiple relationships that would not reasonably be expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or harm are not unethical. (b) If a psychologist finds that, due to unforeseen factors, a potentially harmful multiple relationship has arisen, the psychologist takes reasonable steps to resolve it with due regard for the best interests of the affected person and maximal compliance with the Ethics Code. (c) When psychologists are required by law, institutional policy, or extraordinary circumstances to serve in more than one role in judicial or administrative proceedings, at the outset they clarify role expectations and the extent of confidentiality and thereafter as changes occur. Conflict of Interest: Psychologists refrain from taking on a professional role when personal, scientific, professional, legal, financial, or other interests or relationships could reasonably be expected to (i) impair their objectivity, competence, or effectiveness in performing their functions as psychologists or (ii) expose the person or organization with whom the professional relationship exists to harm or exploitation. Third-Party Requests for Services: When psychologists agree to provide services to a person or entity at the request of a third party, psychologists attempt to clarify at the outset of the service the nature of the relationship with all individuals or organizations involved. This clarification includes the role of the psychologist (e.g., therapist, consultant, diagnostician, or expert witness), an identification of who is the client, the probable uses of the services provided or the information obtained, and the fact that there may be limits to confidentiality. Exploitative Relationships: Psychologists do not exploit persons over whom they have supervisory, evaluative, or other authority such as clients/patients, students, supervisees, research participants, and employees.
- Cooperation with Other Professionals: When indicated and professionally appropriate, psychologists cooperate with other professionals in order to serve their clients/patients effectively and appropriately. Informed Consent: (a) When psychologists conduct research or provide assessment, therapy, counseling, or consulting services in person or via electronic transmission or other forms of communication, they obtain the informed consent of the individual or individuals using language that is reasonably understandable to that person or persons except when conducting such activities without consent is mandated by law or governmental regulation or as otherwise provided in this Ethics Code. (b) For persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent, psychologists nevertheless (i) provide an appropriate explanation, (ii) seek the individual's assent, (iii) consider such persons' preferences and best interests, and (iv) obtain appropriate permission from a legally authorized person, if such substitute consent is permitted or required by law. When consent by a legally authorized person is not permitted or required by law, psychologists take reasonable steps to protect the individual's rights and welfare. (c) When psychological services are court ordered or otherwise mandated, psychologists inform the individual of the nature of the anticipated services, including whether the services are court ordered or mandated and any limits of confidentiality, before proceeding. (d) Psychologists appropriately document written or oral consent, permission, and assent. Psychological Services Delivered to or Through Organizations: (a) Psychologists delivering services to or through organizations provide information beforehand to clients and when appropriate those directly affected by the services about (i) the nature and objectives of the services, (ii) the intended recipients, (iii) which of the individuals are clients, (iv) the relationship the psychologist will have with each person and the organization, (v) the probable uses of services provided and information obtained, (vi) who will have access to the information, and (vii) limits of confidentiality. As soon as feasible, they provide information about the results and conclusions of such services to appropriate persons. (b) If psychologists will be precluded by law or by organizational roles from providing such information to particular individuals or groups, they so inform those individuals or groups at the outset of the service. Interruption of Psychological Services: Unless otherwise covered by contract, psychologists make reasonable efforts to plan for facilitating services in the event that psychological services are interrupted by factors such as the psychologist's illness, death, unavailability, relocation, or retirement or by the client's/patient's relocation or financial limitations. Maintaining Confidentiality: Psychologists have a primary obligation and take reasonable precautions to protect confidential information obtained through or stored in any medium, recognizing that the extent and limits of confidentiality may be regulated by law or established by institutional rules or professional or scientific relationship.