1. LEADERSHIP AND
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
BY SAJJAD AHMAD
AWAN PHD SCHOLAR TE
PLANNING
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

2. LEADERSHIP
 The word leadership can refer to:
 The process of leading
 Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

3. DEFINITION
 House defines “leadership” as “the ability of an individual
to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute
toward the effectiveness and success of the
organizations of which they are members”.
 Organizationally, leadership directly impacts the
effectiveness of costs, revenue generation, service,
satisfaction, earnings, market value, share price, social
capital, motivation, engagement, and sustainability.
 Leadership is the ability of an individual to set an
example for others and lead from the from the front. It is
an attitude that influences the environment around us.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

4. QUALITIES OF LEADERSHIP
 Guiding others through modeling (in the sense of providing a role model)
 Talent and technical/ specific skill at some task at hand
 Initiative and entrepreneurial drive
 Charismatic inspiration – attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage
this esteem to motivate others
 Preoccupation with a role – a dedication that consumes much of leaders‟ life
– service to a cause
 A clear sense of purpose (or mission) – clear goals – focus – commitment
 Results-orientation-directing every action towards a mission – prioritizing
activities to spend time where results most accrue
 Cooperation-work well with others
 Optimism –
 Rejection of determinism-belief in himself to make a difference
 Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them
 Self – knowledge (in non-bureaucratic structures)
 Self – awareness – the ability to “lead” (as it were) one‟s own self prior to
leading other selves similarly
 Understanding what others say, rather than listening to how they say things
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

5. PURPOSE OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership is a way of focusing and motivating a
group to enable them to achieve their aims. It
also involves being accountable and responsible
for the group as a whole
A leader should:
 Provide continuity and momentum
 Be flexible in allowing changes of direction
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

6. LEADERSHIP THEORIES
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

7. GREAT MAN THEORY
 Assumptions
 Leaders are born and not made.
 Great leaders will arise when there is a great
need.
 These theories often portray great leaders as
heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to
leadership when needed. The term “Great
Man” was used because, at the time,
leadership was thought of primarily as a
male quality, especially in terms of military
leadership.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

8. TRAIT THEORY
 Assumptions
 People are born with inherited traits
 Some traits are particularly suited to leadership
 People who make leaders have a right combination of traits
 Description
 Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of
the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits.
Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying
successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other
people could also be found with these traits , then they too could also
become great leaders
 Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral
characteristics shared by leaders. But if particular traits are key features
of leadership, how do we explain people who possess those qualities but
are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait
theories to explain leadership.SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

9. Traits critical to leaders
 Stogdill(1974) found the following traits and skills critical to leaders
Traits Skills
Adaptable to situation Clever
Alert to social environment Conceptually skilled
Ambitious and achievement oriented Creative
Assertive Diplomatic and tactful
Cooperative Fluent in speaking
Decisive Knowledgeable about group task
Dominant (desire to influence others Organized
Dependable Persuasive
Persistent Socially skilled
Self -confident
Tolerant of stress
Willing to assume responsibility
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

10. Continued
 McCall and Lombardo(1983) identified four
essential primary traits for successful leader:
 Emotional stability and composure: Calm,
confident and predictable, particularly when under
stress.
 Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than
putting energy into covering up.
 Good interpersonal skills: Able to communicate and
persuade others without resort to negative or coercive
tactics.
 Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide
range of areas, rather than having a narrow (and
narrow-minded) area of expertise.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

11. BEHAVIORAL THEORY
 Assumptions
 Leaders can be made, rather than are born.
 Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable
behavior.
 Description
Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or
capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do.
 Behavioral theory is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it
assumes that leadership capability can be learned, rather
than being inherent.
 A behavioral theory is relatively easy to develop, as you
simply assess both leadership success and the actions of
leaders. With a large enough study, you can then correlate
statistically significant behaviors with success. You can also
identify behaviors which contribute to failure, thus adding a
second layer of understanding.SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

12. Role Theory
Assumptions
 People define roles for themselves and others based on social
learning and reading.
 People form expectations about the roles that they and others will
play.
 People encourage others to act within the role expectations they
have for them
 People will act within the roles they adopt
Description
 We all have internal schemas about the role of leaders, based on
what we read, discuss and so on. We subtly send these expectations
to our leaders, acting as role senders, for example through the
balance of decisions we take upon ourselves and the decisions we
leave to the leader.
 Leaders are influenced by these signals, and will generally conform
to these, playing the leadership role that is put upon them by others.
 Role conflict can also occur when people have differing expectations
of their leaders. It also happens when leaders have different ideas
about what they should be doing vs. the expectations that are put
upon them.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

13. PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP
 Assumptions
 Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the
issues involved by those who must carry out the decisions.
 People are more committed to actions
 People are less competitive and more collaborative when working
on joint goals.
 When people make decisions together, the social commitment to
one another is greater and thus increases their commitment to the
decision.
 Style
 A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions,
seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including
subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders.
 Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership
style is one that takes the input of others into account. These
leaders encourage participation and contributions from group
members and help group members feel more relevant and
committed to the decision-making process.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

14. Lewin’s leadership style
 Autocratic: Decision without consulting others.
It caused the most level of discontent
 Democratic: Leader involves people in
decision making.
 Appreciated by people.
 Problematic when there are wide range of opinion
and there is no clear way of reaching an equitable
final decision.
 Laissez-Faire: It minimizes the leader‟s
involvement in decision making. Works well
when people are capable and motivated and
there is no need of central coordination.SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

15. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
 No single best way to lead
 Focus on maturity or readiness of followers
 Ability and willingness
 Adjust emphasis on task and relationship behaviors
according to the readiness of followers to perform
their tasks
 Telling: low readiness, untrained and inexperienced
employees
 Selling: low/moderate readiness, trained but
inexperienced employees
 Participating: moderate/high readiness, able but
unwilling, employees skeptical
 Delegating: high readiness, employees ready and
willing to take responsibilitySAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

16. Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Model
 Assumptions
 Decision acceptance increases commitment and effectiveness of
action.
 Participation increases decision acceptance
 Description
Decision acceptance is the degree to which a follower accepts a decision
made by a leader. Decision quality is the selection of the best alternative,
and is particularly important when there are many alternatives. It is also
important when there are serious implications for selecting (or failing to
select) the best alternative.
 Vroom and Yetton defined five different decision procedures. Two are
autocratic (A1 and A2), two are consultative (C1 and C2) and one is
Group based (G2).
• A1: Leader takes known information and then decides alone.
• A2: Leader gets information from followers, and then decides alone.
• C1: Leader shares problem with followers individually, listens to ideas
and then decides alone.
• C2: Leader shares problems with followers as a group, listens to ideas
and then decides alone.
• G2: Leader shares problems with followers as a group and then seeks
and accepts Consensus agreement.SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

17. Continued
 Situational factors that influence the method are relatively logical:
 When decision quality is important and followers possess useful
information, then A1 and A2 are not the best method.
 When the leader sees decision quality is important but followers do not,
then G2 is inappropriate.
 When decision quality is important, when the problem is unstructured
and the leader lacks information/ skill to make the decision alone, then
G2 is best.
 When decision acceptance is important and followers are unlikely to
accept an autocratic decision, then A1 and A2 are inappropriate.
 When decision acceptance is important but followers are likely to
disagree with one another, then A1, A2 and C1 are not appropriate,
because they do not give opportunity for differences to be resolved.
 When decision quality is not important but decision acceptance is critical,
then G2 is the best method.
 When decision quality is important, all agree with this, and the decision is
not likely to result from an autocratic decision then G2 is best.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

18. Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
 Description: This Theory was developed to
describe the way that leaders encourage and
support their followers in achieving the goals
they have been set by making the path that
they should take clear and easy.
 Rooted in Expectancy Theory
 Leader behaviors
 Directive
 Supportive
 Achievement-oriented
 Participative
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

19. Continued
Causal Variables
Leader Behavior
Intervening Variables
Subordinate expectations
Outcome Variables
Subordinate effort
and satisfaction
Situational Moderator Variables
Characteristics of task and environment
Characteristics of subordinates
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

20. Supportive Leadership
Reduce boredom
Make job more
tolerable
Increase the intrinsic
valence of work
Increase self-confidence
Lower Anxiety
Increase effort-
performance expectancy
Supportive
Leadership Increase effort
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

21. Directive Leadership
Directive
Leadership
Increase size
of incentives
Increase outcome
valences for task
success
Increase
subordinate
effort
Strengthen reward
contingencies
Increase performance-
reward expectancies
Reduce role ambiguity
Increase effort-
performance
expectancy
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

22. CONTINGENCY THEORY
 Assumptions
 The leader‟s ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors,
including the leader‟s preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of
followers and various other situational factors.
 Description
 Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contends that
there is no one best way of leading and that a leadership style that is
effective in some situations may not be successful in others
 An effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and
time may become unsuccessful either when transplanted to another
situation or when the factors around them change.
 Discussion
 Contingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an
assumption of no simple one right way.
 The main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the
behaviors that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often
about follower behavior), whereas contingency theory takes a broader
view that includes contingent factors about leader capability and other
variables within the situation.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

23. Fiedler’s Least Preferred Co-worker
(LPC) Theory
 Leaders prioritize between task-focus and
people-focus.
 Relationships, power and task structure are
the three key factors that drive effective
styles.
 Group effectiveness dependent on an
appropriate match between a leader‟s style
and the demands of the situation
 Situational control
 Least preferred coworker
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

24. Continued
 Fiedler identified a Least Preferred Co-Worker scoring for leaders by asking
them first to think of a person with which they worked that they would like
least to work with again, and then to score the person on a range of scales
between positive factors (friendly, helpful, cheerful, etc.) and negative factors
(unfriendly, unhelpful, gloomy, etc.). A high LPC leader generally scores the
other person as positive and low LPC leader scores them as negative.
 High LPC leaders tend to have close and positive relationships and act in a
supportive way, even prioritizing the relationship before the task. Low LPC
leaders put the task first and will turn to relationships only when they are
satisfied with how the work is going.
 Three factors are then identified about the leader, member and the task, as
follows:
 Leader-Member Relations: The extent to which the leader has the
support and loyalties of followers and relations with them are friendly and
cooperative.
 Task structure: The extent to which tasks are standardized,
documented and controlled.
 Leader’s Position-power: The extent to which the leader has authority
to assess follower performance and give reward or punishment.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

25. The Managerial Grid
 Description
Leaders may be concerned for their
people and they also must also have some
concern for the work to be done. The
question is, how much attention do they
pay to one or the other? This is a model
defined by Blake and Mouton in the early
1960s.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

26. Concern
for
people
High Country club
management
Team
manageme
nt
Medium Middle of
the road
manage
ment
Low Impoverished
management
Authority
complianc
e
Low Medium High
Concern for production (Task)
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

27. Continued….
 Impoverished management: Minimum effort to get the work
done. Basically a lazy approach that avoids as much work as
possible.
 Authority-compliance: Strong focus on task, but with little
concern for people. Focus on efficiency, including the
elimination of people wherever possible.
 Country Club management: Care and concern for the people,
with a comfortable and friendly environment and collegial style.
But a low focus on task may give questionable results.
 Middle of the road management: A weak balance of focus on
both people and the work. Doing enough to get things done, but
not pushing the boundaries of what may be possible.
 Team management: Firing on all cylinders: people are
committed to task and leader is committed to people (as well as
task). SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

28. Cognitive Resource Theory
 Assumptions:
 Intelligence and experience and other cognitive resources
and factors in leadership success.
 Cognitive capabilities, although significant are not enough to
predict leadership success.
 Stress impacts the ability to make decisions.
 Description: Cognitive Resource Theory predicts
that:
 A leader’s cognitive ability contributes to the
performance of the team only when the leader’s
approach is directive.
• When leaders are better at planning and decision-making, in order for
their plans and decisions to be implemented, they need to tell people
what to do, rather than hope they agree with them.
• When they are not better than people in the team, then a non-
directive approach is more appropriate, for example where they
facilitate an open discussion where the ideas of team can be aired
and the best approach identified and implemented.SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

29. Continued…
 Stress affects the relationship between intelligence and
decision quality.
 When there is low stress, then intelligence is fully functional
and makes an optimal contribution. However, during high
stress, a natural intelligence not only makes no difference,
but it may also have a negative effect.
 When there is a high stress situation and intelligence is
impaired, experience of the same or similar situations
enables the leader to react in appropriate ways without
having to think carefully about the situation. Experience of
decision-making under stress also will contribute to a better
decision than trying to muddle through with brain-power
alone.
 For simple tasks, leader intelligence and experience is
irrelevant.
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

30. Developments in leadership: current
themes and trends
 Charismatic
 Transactional Leadership
 Transformational
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

31. Transactional Leadership
 Focus on the management
of the organisation
 Focus on procedures and efficiency
 Focus on working to rules
and contracts
 Managing current issues
and problems
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

32. Transformational Leadership
 Involves Widespread changes
to a business or organisation
 Requires:
 Long term strategic planning
 Clear objectives
 Clear vision
 Leading by example – walk the walk
 Efficiency of systems and processes
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

33. Continued
Transformational Leadership
Idealized Influence
Inspiration
Intellectual stimulation
Individualized consideration
Transactional Leadership
Contingent reward
Management by exception
(active or passive)
Laissez faire
Performance
beyond
expectations
Agreed upon
performance
Leader/follower
exchange
Broadening and
Elevating
follower goals
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

34. Leadership: More recent developments
New Leadership (1980s+) Dispersed Leadership
(1990s+
Leaders as managers of
meaning
•Leaders as charismatic and
visionary
•Focus on successful „top‟
leaders
•Leaders are not „heroic‟or
formally designated but widely
dispersed
•Nurture leadership capacity in
others
•Dispersion of leadership
through teams
•Recognition of non-traditional
leadership skills, e.g.
organizing, networking
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

35. Leadership: critical issues and trends
 Temporal shifts in understanding what constitutes
leadership
 Reappraisal of charismatic and transformational model
 Critical reassessment of attempts to identify and
catalogue a series of „competencies‟ associated with
leadership
 Critical reassessment of ways in which leadership
training and development has been attempted
 Evidence of links between leadership and
performance
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

36. Emergent Themes:
Towards an Integrative, Holistic Model
of Leadership
 Vision and mission
 Shared values
 Strategy
 Empowerment
 Influence, motivation and inspiration
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

37. A New Conceptual Model
TRADITIONAL
LEADERSHIP
TRADITIONAL
MANAGER
NEW LEADER-
MANAGER
Envision
Communicate
Inspire
Energize
Create
Innovative
Discover
Mobilize
Direct
Develop
Focus
Plan
Schedule
Allocate
Delegate
Manage quality
Learn
Encourage
Open
Handle ambiguity
„break down barriers
Partner
Enable
Co-create
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

38. Leadership Challenges Ahead
 Globalization
 New technology
 Deregulation and privatization
 Intense competition
 Increasing inter-dependence
 Higher-quality products, services and customer
care
 People‟s increasing expectations
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

39. The New Organization
 Knowledge based
 Permanently flexible‟
 Partnerships
 The „virtual organization‟, networked through IT
 The „learning organization‟
 Leadership rather than management
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

40. Meeting the Challenges Ahead
 Not only…
•Responding positively to the need for
change
 but also…
•Actively creating change
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR

41. Staff of „Excellent‟ authorities are
more likely to…
 Have an input into work planning
 Have an opportunity to show their initiative
 Believe their manager listens to their ideas
 Have a say in management decisions
 Have the opportunity to let the authority know
how they feel about things that affect them and
their work
 Feel their authority keeps them well-informed
 Believe that the reasons for change are well
communicated, & that change is well managed
SAJJAD AHMAD AWAN PHD
SCHOLAR