19. adrenal glands
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The document summarizes the physiology of the adrenal glands, which consist of an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex produces mineralocorticoids like aldosterone and glucocorticoids like cortisol. It is regulated by the renin-angiotensin system and HPA axis in response to stress. The medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine which increase heart rate and metabolism through beta receptors and constrict blood vessels through alpha receptors. Conditions like Cushing's and Addison's disease result from excess or deficiency of these hormones.
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(HYPOPHYSIS)
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WEIGHT: 0.5-1 GM
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TWO PORTIONS
1- ANTERIOR PITUITARY
(ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)
2-POSTERIOR PITUITARY
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This document discusses sex determination and differentiation. It begins by explaining that sex is determined by X and Y chromosomes, with females having two X chromosomes and males having one X and one Y chromosome. It then describes the process of sex differentiation in males and females both internally and externally. It discusses factors involved like Müllerian inhibiting substance and testosterone. It outlines several sex chromosomal abnormalities including Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, and various types of pseudohermaphroditism. The document aims to explain the physiology of sex determination and differentiation and its abnormalities.
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(3) Labor contractions are initially weak but grow stronger through positive feedback as the cervix is stretched, further stimulating contractions. Strong, regular contractions combined with abdominal muscle contractions expel the baby.
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The document discusses the anatomy, embryology, histology, functions and pathologies of the adrenal glands. It covers the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex (cortisol, aldosterone) and medulla (epinephrine, norepinephrine), their roles and regulatory pathways. Key conditions discussed include Cushing's syndrome, Conn's syndrome, Addison's disease and pheochromocytoma. The synthesis, actions and metabolism of adrenal hormones are summarized along with tests used in diagnosis of adrenal disorders.
Lecture 21 adrenal glands diseases - pathology
The adrenal glands are located above the kidneys and are composed of an outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone and glucocorticoids like cortisol which regulate electrolyte and glucose levels. It also produces sex hormones. The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines such as epinephrine and norepinephrine which trigger the fight or flight response. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulates adrenal hormone production through feedback loops. Diseases of the adrenal cortex can cause too much or too little production of cortisol and other hormones.
ADRENAL GLAND.pptx
The adrenal glands produce important steroid hormones including cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens. Disorders can result from too much or too little production of these hormones. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is caused by enzyme deficiencies that cause excessive androgen production. Cushing's disease is caused by a pituitary tumor that overproduces ACTH, leading to excessive cortisol levels. Addison's disease results from primary adrenal failure or secondary ACTH deficiency, causing low cortisol levels. Laboratory tests evaluate cortisol levels and response to stimulation to diagnose these adrenal disorders.
abdi Hrmone.pptx
This document provides information about hormones produced by the adrenal glands and hypothalamus-pituitary axis. It discusses the major adrenal hormones including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, catecholamines, and sex steroids. For each hormone, it describes the site of production, regulation, effects, abnormalities of hypo- and hypersecretion, and laboratory tests. It also summarizes the female and male sex hormones produced by the ovaries and testes, as well as placental hormones critical during pregnancy.
The Adrenal Gland-converted.pptx
The adrenal glands produce important hormones including cortisol and aldosterone. Cortisol is a glucocorticoid that regulates glucose levels and has anti-inflammatory effects. Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid that regulates sodium and water balance. The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis controls cortisol production, while angiotensin II, potassium, and ACTH stimulate aldosterone secretion. Imbalances in these hormones can lead to diseases like Cushing's syndrome or Addison's disease.
Adrenal glands & hormones.ppt
The document discusses adrenal glands and their hormones. It describes the location and structure of the adrenal glands and their two components - the medulla and cortex. The cortex contains three zones (glomerulosa, fasciculata, and reticularis) that each secrete different hormones such as aldosterone, cortisol, and DHEA. It also discusses the synthesis of adrenal hormones from cholesterol, regulated by the HPA axis in response to stress. Glucocorticoids like cortisol help maintain blood glucose and metabolism during stress.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM.pptx
The endocrine system regulates whole body function through hormones. Hormones are released by endocrine glands and circulate through the bloodstream to target sites. Key endocrine glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes. The pituitary gland regulates other glands through releasing hormones like TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, and GH. Thyroid hormones T3 and T4 regulate metabolism, and calcitonin regulates calcium levels. The parathyroid secretes PTH which increases calcium absorption and resorption from bones.
Diseases of adrenal cortex and medulla
This document provides information on diseases of the adrenal cortex and medulla. It discusses the anatomy and histology of the adrenal glands and their regulation. It then describes specific adrenal disorders including Cushing's syndrome, primary aldosteronism, adrenal insufficiency, incidental adrenal masses, and their causes, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment. Diseases are summarized with their predominant hormonal abnormalities and management approaches.
Endocrinology 122-93
The document discusses several endocrine glands and their hormones. It describes the parathyroid glands, which secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) to regulate calcium levels. The adrenal cortex secretes glucocorticoids like cortisol and mineralocorticoids like aldosterone. The pancreas contains islets of Langerhans that secrete insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar. The testes secrete testosterone and other androgens to promote male characteristics. Thyroid hormones, growth hormone, and estrogen also affect calcium metabolism and other processes.
Suprarenal gland dr dina
The suprarenal gland consists of an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex secretes steroid hormones including glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and sex hormones. Glucocorticoids such as cortisol regulate metabolism and immune function. Mineralocorticoids like aldosterone regulate sodium and water balance. The secretion of these hormones is controlled by negative feedback mechanisms and circadian rhythms, and can increase in response to stress. Disorders of the suprarenal gland include Cushing's syndrome, caused by excess glucocorticoid secretion, and Addison's disease, caused by glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid deficiency.
Adrenal glands
The adrenal glands consist of an outer cortex and inner medulla. The cortex secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone and glucocorticoids like cortisol. The medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenal insufficiency can be primary, secondary, or tertiary and results in low cortisol levels. Addison's disease is primary adrenal insufficiency caused by destruction of the adrenal cortex. It causes symptoms like fatigue, weight loss, and hypoglycemia due to low cortisol and mineralocorticoid deficiencies.
Systemic Response To Injury
This document summarizes the systemic response to injury and infection in the body. It discusses how injuries trigger neuroendocrine and inflammatory responses to restore homeostasis. The response has two phases - an initial pro-inflammatory response to fight infection, followed by an anti-inflammatory phase to prevent excessive inflammation and restore homeostasis. It provides details on the hormones, cytokines and other mediators involved in this response, including their effects on various organ systems.
997399 adrenal-glands
The document discusses the adrenal glands and their hormones. It describes that the adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and contain an adrenal cortex and medulla. The cortex secretes corticosteroids like mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid produced in the zona glomerulosa, while cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid from the zona fasciculata. Cortisol regulates blood glucose and sodium/potassium balance. The document also outlines the functions of aldosterone in increasing sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the kidneys.
997399 adrenal-glands
The document discusses the adrenal glands and their hormones. It describes that the adrenal glands sit above the kidneys and contain an adrenal cortex and medulla. The cortex secretes corticosteroids like mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid produced in the zona glomerulosa, while cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid from the zona fasciculata. Cortisol regulates blood glucose and its secretion is controlled by ACTH. The document also outlines the functions of aldosterone in regulating sodium, potassium, and blood pressure.
Adrenocorticosteroids
The document discusses adrenocorticosteroids and their uses. It describes the adrenal glands and hormones they produce, including mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and adrenal androgens. It outlines the therapeutic uses of adrenocorticosteroids in treating adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, inflammatory disorders, and more. Side effects are noted if used long-term or withdrawn abruptly.
Similar to 19. adrenal glands (20)
A small gland that makes steroid hormones, adrenaline, and noradrenaline
A small gland that makes steroid hormones, adrenaline, and noradrenaline
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Airway foreign body
This document discusses airway foreign bodies. Young children ages 1-3 are most at risk of aspirating objects due to lack of teeth and coordination. Common aspirated items include peanuts and other foods. Foreign bodies can lodge in the larynx, trachea or bronchi. Symptoms depend on the location but may include coughing, difficulty breathing or pain. Diagnosis involves history, imaging and examination. Removal requires visualization and extraction, often using laryngoscopy or bronchoscopy under anesthesia.
Phenylketonuria
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a rare genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the PAH gene that results in a deficiency of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. This enzyme is needed to break down the amino acid phenylalanine, which accumulates and causes neurological damage if left untreated. PKU is typically diagnosed via newborn screening and can be successfully managed through a lifelong low-phenylalanine diet and supplements to prevent intellectual disability and other serious issues. Untreated PKU leads to neurological problems, but early diagnosis and strict dietary control allows patients to live healthy lives.
Cat's cry syndrome & Prader willi syndromes
Cat's cry syndrome, also known as cri du chat syndrome, is a rare genetic disorder caused by a missing part of chromosome 5. It is characterized by a high-pitched cry in infants and significant developmental delays. Prader-Willi syndrome is another rare genetic disorder caused by deletions or defects on chromosome 15. It causes poor muscle tone and feeding difficulties in infants as well as excessive hunger and weight gain in older children. Both disorders are diagnosed based on symptoms and genetic testing, and treatment focuses on managing symptoms.
adrenergic drugs
This document discusses adrenergic drugs and their mechanisms of action. It describes:
1. The synthesis, action, and fate of norepinephrine in the autonomic nervous system. Norepinephrine is synthesized from tyrosine and stored in vesicles until release.
2. The different types of adrenergic receptors (α and β) and their typical locations. Receptor stimulation activates different signaling pathways.
3. The clinical uses and side effects of various adrenergic drugs that either stimulate or block adrenergic receptors. Drugs like epinephrine and norepinephrine are used to treat low blood pressure and shock. Bronchodilators target β receptors. Antiadrener
7. lipids
Lipids are hydrophobic molecules that include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, sphingolipids, and sterols. They serve important structural and metabolic roles in the body. Fatty acids are used for energy storage and signaling molecules. Triglycerides store fatty acids in adipose tissue. Phospholipids and sphingolipids are major components of cell membranes. Sterols like cholesterol are important membrane components and steroid hormones modulate physiological activity.
Physiology Taste and Smell
The nasal cavity contains the olfactory segment which is lined with olfactory epithelium containing receptors that detect smells. Each olfactory receptor is a neuron with cilia that project into the mucus and connect to the olfactory bulbs. The olfactory bulbs contain neurons that process smell information and project to the olfactory cortex. Taste buds on the tongue and oral cavity contain receptor cells that detect the five basic tastes and transmit information through cranial nerves to the brainstem and thalamus for processing. Abnormalities of smell and taste include anosmia, hyposmia, dysgeusia, and ageusia which can be caused by damage, disease, or other factors.
36. kidney 2-08-09
The document summarizes the structure and function of the glomerular filtration barrier, which allows fluid and small molecules to pass through while filtering out cells and large molecules. It then discusses factors that regulate glomerular filtration rate (GFR), such as glomerular capillary hydraulic pressure, oncotic pressure, and blood flow. GFR can be estimated by measuring creatinine clearance over 24 hours. Changes in blood pressure, protein levels, and other factors can impact GFR by altering the filtration forces across the glomerular barrier.
35. kidney 1-07-08
The document summarizes renal physiology and kidney function. The kidney maintains homeostasis by precisely regulating the balance of water, electrolytes, and other substances in the body through filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Key functions include regulating fluid volume and composition, electrolyte levels, and excretion of wastes while conserving essential nutrients. These processes occur along the functional units of the kidney called nephrons.
34. cardiovascular 5-2-08-09
The document summarizes blood flow to different parts of the body, including the brain, heart, skeletal muscles, skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal system. It describes how blood flow is controlled and changes in each area, such as increasing during exercise in muscles or decreasing to conserve heat in the skin. Blood flow to the brain remains constant across a wide range of conditions through autoregulation and is sensitive to carbon dioxide levels.
33. cardiovascular 5-1-08-09
The document summarizes the coronary circulation system. The coronary arteries carry oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle and branch into smaller vessels that penetrate the myocardium. Coronary blood flow is regulated to match the oxygen demands of the heart. During systole, the compressing heart muscle walls can temporarily reduce blood flow through the penetrating vessels. Several factors influence coronary blood flow, including oxygen consumption by the heart muscle, adenosine release during hypoxia, and sympathetic stimulation increasing heart rate and contractility. Between a blood pressure of 60-150 mm Hg, coronary flow remains stable due to autoregulation, but very low diastolic pressures can reduce coronary filling. Tachycardia may cause ischemia if it shortens diast
32. cardiovascular 4-08-09
This document summarizes the regulation of the cardiovascular system by the autonomic nervous system. It discusses how the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems control heart rate and contractility through positive and negative chronotropic and inotropic effects. The parasympathetic nervous system acts through the vagus nerve to slow the heart rate, while the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate. Both divisions also affect blood vessel diameter and peripheral blood flow through vasoconstriction and vasodilation. Local metabolic factors also contribute to regulation of blood flow through autoregulation in tissues.
31. cardiovascular 3-08-09
The document summarizes the structure and function of blood vessels and capillaries in the cardiovascular system. It describes the three layers of blood vessel walls, the differences between arteries and veins, and how capillaries allow for exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste between blood and tissues. It also explains how blood flow, resistance, pressure, and filtration influence the transport of blood throughout the circulatory system to supply oxygen and nutrients to cells.
30. cardiovascular 2-07-08
The document provides an overview of electrocardiograms (ECGs), including:
1) How ECGs work by measuring the electrical activity of the heart using electrodes placed on the body.
2) Details on Willem Einthoven who pioneered ECG research in the late 19th/early 20th century.
3) Explanation of normal ECG wave patterns and what different parts of the readout represent.
29. cardiovascular 1-08-09
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and circulation, which transports blood throughout the body. The heart is a double pump with four chambers that uses electrical signals and muscle contraction to circulate blood in two loops. Cardiac muscle cells generate action potentials via ion channels that trigger coordinated contractions and allow the heart to function as a syncytium. The cardiac cycle is regulated to supply the body's needs.
28. respiratory 3-08-09
The document summarizes the regulation of respiration through respiratory centers located in the brainstem and pons. It discusses the dual control of automatic and voluntary respiration, and describes the roles of various centers including the pneumotaxic, apneustic, dorsal respiratory group (DRG), and ventral respiratory group (VRG). Peripheral chemoreceptors like the carotid and aortic bodies that sense blood gases, and pulmonary stretch receptors are also involved in regulating breathing. Higher brain centers and various factors influence respiration.
27. respiratory 2-07-08
Gas exchange occurs through diffusion driven by partial pressure gradients. In the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli. The lungs are well-adapted for gas exchange with a large surface area and thin membrane between alveoli and blood vessels. In tissues, oxygen diffuses from blood into cells fueled by the partial pressure gradient while carbon dioxide diffuses into blood driven by its higher partial pressure in tissues. Hemoglobin transports the majority of oxygen in red blood cells from the lungs to tissues throughout the body.
26. respiratory 1-07-08
The respiratory system maintains normal levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH in the blood. Air enters the nose and travels through branching airways until reaching the alveoli in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. The lungs are kept inflated by the negative pressure between the visceral and parietal pleura, and contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles during inhalation increases the thoracic cavity volume. Exhalation is a passive process as elastic forces cause lung deflation when the muscles relax.
25. blood 3-08-09
Hemostasis is achieved through three mechanisms: 1) vascular constriction to reduce blood flow, 2) formation of a platelet plug to block small ruptures, and 3) blood coagulation and clot formation within 3-6 minutes. The clot contracts and closes the vessel opening, then either dissolves or is organized into fibrous tissue over 1-2 weeks. Blood coagulation is initiated through intrinsic and extrinsic pathways activating thrombin, which converts fibrinogen to fibrin fibers that form the clot mesh. The endothelium and natural anticoagulants normally prevent clotting within vessels.
24. blood 2-07-08
White blood cells (leukocytes) play an important role in immune responses and tissue maintenance. There are two main types - polymorphonuclear granulocytes which have lobed nuclei and cytoplasmic granules, and mononuclear agranulocytes which lack granules and have large nuclei. Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes are the major leukocyte types and each plays distinct roles in immune function and response to pathogens. Leukocytes are produced through myeloid and lymphoid stem cell lineages in the bone marrow.
23. blood 1-08-09
The document summarizes key aspects of the blood system and blood components. It discusses how blood circulates through the cardiovascular system, transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removing waste. It describes the functions of blood including respiration, nutrient distribution, waste excretion, temperature regulation, immunity, and blood clotting. It provides details on blood volume, constituents such as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. It also summarizes the development and life cycle of red blood cells.
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19. adrenal glands
- 2. The adrenal glands are situated at the upper poles of each kidney and consist of an outer cortex surrounding a central medulla
- 10. Higher brain centers Hormonal Limbic system Hypothalamus Pituitary CRF Adrenal ACTH ACTH Stress Diurnal rhythm Cortisol - - negative feedback Mineralocorticoids Androgens/Estrogens The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
- 17. Synthesis and Secretion of Catecholamines Synthesis of catecholamines begins with the amino acid tyrosine, which is taken up by chromaffin cells in the medulla and converted to norepinephrine and epinephrine through the following steps: Norepinephine and epinephrine are stored in electron-dense granules which also contain ATP and several neuropeptides. Secretion of these hormones is stimulated by acetylcholine release from preganglionic sympathetic fibers innervating the medulla. Many types of "stresses " stimulate such secretion, including exercise , hypoglycemia and trauma . Following secretion into blood, the catecholamines bind loosely to and are carried in the circulation by albumin and perhaps other serum proteins .
- 19. Complex physiologic responses result from adrenal medullary stimulation because there are multiple receptor types which are differentially expressed in different tissues and cells. The alpha and beta adrenergic receptors and their subtypes were originally defined by differential binding of various agonists and antagnonists and, more recently, by analysis of molecular clones. Receptor Effectively Binds Effect of Ligand Binding Alpha 1 Epinephrine, Norepinphrine Increased free calcium Alpha 2 Epinephrine, Norepinphrine Decreased cyclic AMP Beta 1 Epinephrine, Norepinphrine Increased cyclic AMP Beta 2 Epinephrine Increased cyclic AMP