Recommended
Recommended
More Related Content
What's hot
What's hot (20)
Similar to UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH.pptx
Similar to UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH.pptx (20)
Recently uploaded
Recently uploaded (20)
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH.pptx
- 2. Research - Defined and Described “Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and confirming new and reliable knowledge” – Systematic and orderly (following a series of steps) – Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable This is a general definition which applies to all disciplines
- 3. Definition and Meaning • Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. (Clifford Woody) • Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement.
- 4. • It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. • It is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem. The systematic approach concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research.
- 5. Definition and Meaning “Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”. (Kerlinger, 1986)
- 6. Relationship between Research and Scientific Method
- 7. 1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena, relationships and causes • What, how and why things occur • Are there interactions? 2. A process • Planned and managed –to make information generated credible • The process is creative • It is circular – always leads to more questions
- 8. 3. All well designed and conducted research has potential application. • Failure to see applications can be due to: Users not trained or experienced in the specialized methods of economic research and reasoning Researchers often do not provide adequate interpretations and guidance on applications of the research
- 11. Scientific Research Introduction • Rigorous reasoning • Objective testing • Laborious, plodding, circuitous, and indirect • Critique contested findings, replication, and convergence • Sustained efforts • Fundamental principles.
- 12. Scientific Research Process Sensing or Realizing a Problem Problem Identification Theoretical Framework Hypothesis Formulation Research Design Data Collection Analysis of Data Refinement of Theory (Basic Research) Implementation (Applied Research) Library Search Observation Deductive Reasoning
- 13. Characteristics of Scientific Research 1. Purposiveness 2. Testability 3. Replicability 4. Objectivity 5. Rigour 6. Generalizability 7. Precision and Confidence 8. Parsimony
- 14. The Nature and Purpose of Research 1. Exploration 2. Description 3. Explanation 4. Generalization and Prediction
- 15. Exploration
- 16. Description
- 17. Explanation
- 22. 1. Applied research 2. Fundamental research 3. Exploratory research 4. Descriptive research 5. Evaluation research Applied and fundamental research
- 23. next Fundamental Research Applied research is conducted in response to a SPECIFIC PROBLEM, which requires a solution.
- 24. It is undertaken for the sole purpose of ADDING TO OUR KNOWLEDGE that is fundamental and generalizable.
- 27. TYPES of EVALUATION RESEARCH 1.Formative 2.Mid-term 3.Summative
Editor's Notes
- investigation, experimentation, testing, exploration, analysis, fact-finding, examination, scrutiny, scrutinization, probing; etc. For students – ACADEMIC research For managers – less specific and less formally academic For housewife – just interested in finding a solution to the problem
- Research is a SYSTEMATIC INQUIRY with the aim of producing useful KNOWLEDGE. Systematic essentially means: Research LINKS TO AND BUILD UPON existing knowledge in the literature, thus adding to the body of knowledge. Use of ORGANIZED PROCESSES and methods of inquiry. Engagement in THEORY BUILDING – resulting in the construction of a body of useful knowledge.
- For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method. The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as "an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more complicated and general situations. " On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method. Karl Pearson writes, "The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained minds... the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science." Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve "this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions." In scientific method, logic aid sin formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear . Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternatives most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among variables. But the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized for either faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty interpretations. As such the researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the experimental design and must state only probable inferences. The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.
- These definition of research highlight TWO IMPORTANT ASPECTS: Research investigations are SUFFICIENTLY BROAD TO INCLUDE ALL TYPES INVESTIGATIONS requiring solutions to a problem, or creation of new knowledge. They EXPLICITLY RECOGNIZE THE SYSTEMATIC NATURE OF THE RESEARCH process in which data are gathered, recorded, analyzed, and interpreted in an organized and systematic manner.
- Science is KNOWLEDGE that is obtained or GAINED from an ORGANIZED, ORDERED AND SYSTEMATICALLY arranged manner through the processes of OBSERVATION, VERIFICATION AND EXPERIMENTATION Application of science to the study of society and human relationships. Scientific research is the PROCESS OF INQUIRY in which we: Pose a QUESTION about the PHYSICAL WORLD Develop a SET OF PROCEDURES using the rational process that if followed, would convincingly answer that question Plan to make appropriate EMPIRICAL OBSERVATIONS RATIONALLY INTERPRET the empirical observation to ARRIVE AT A CONCLUSION.
- A PROCESS of rigorous reasoning based on INTERACTIONS among THEORIES METHODS, AND FINDINGs; Builds on understanding derived from the objective testing OF MODELS OR THEORIES; ACCUMULATION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE is laborious, plodding (slow), circuitous (twisting) and indirect; SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE IS DEVELOPED AND HONED (refined) through critique contested findings, replication, and convergence; SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE is developed through sustained efforts; Scientific inquiry must be GUIDED BY fundamental principles.
- Sensing or Realizing Problem: IDENTIFY AN ISSUE you want to study. You may not know exactly what is happening, but you can definitely sense about DEVIATIONS. Problem Identification: Identify what EXACTLY are problems or issues. Poorly defined problem will be waste of resources. Theoretical Framework: INTEGRATE the information LOGICALLY so that the reason for the problem can be CONCEPTUALIZED. Critical Variables identified. Research Design: FRAMEWORK for Collecting, Analyzing, and Evaluating data. Hypothesis Formulation: LOGICALLY CONJECTURED RELATIONSHIP between two or more variables EXPRESSED IN THE FORM OF STATEMENTS. Deduction takes generalizations and collects evidence to see if they are supported under a variety of circumstances. Collection of Data: ADMINISTER RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS (questionnaire, interview schedules, observation schedules etc.) Data Analysis: Summarize and analyze the data. Statistical analysis of data that have been EDITED, CODED, AND TABULATED. Refinement of Theory or Practice: INTERPRETATION AND GENERALIZATION of findings into the larger body of knowledge.
- Purposiveness: All research must have an AIM; that is, it should be PROBLEM-BASED, UNIFIED and DIRECTED, not pointless and random. Testability: Scientific research lend itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see WHETHER or not DATA SUPPORT the educated conjecture or hypothesis. Replicability: The results of the test of hypothesis should be SUPPORTED AGAIN AND AGAIN when same type of research is conducted in other similar circumstances. Objectivity: The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective that is, they should be BASED ON FACTS of the findings derived from actual data and NOT ON OUR OWN SUBJECTIVE or EMOTIONAL VALUES. Rigor: A good theoretical base and sound methodological design give rigor to the research. Rigor indicates CAREFULNESS and degree of exactitude in research. Generalizability: It refers to the scope of replicability of the research findings in ONE ORGANIZATIONAL SETTING TO OTHERS, the wider the range of replicability of the solution generated by the research the more useful the research is to the user. Precision and Confidence: Precision refers to the CLOSENESS of the findings to REALITY based on a sample. Precision reflects the DEGREE OF EXACTNESS AND ACCURACY of the results on the basis of samples. Also known as confidence interval in statistics. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimation are correct so that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and there is only 5% chance of our results being false.” Parsimony: SIMPLICITY IN EXPLAINING the phenomenon or problem that occur in generating the solutions of the problem is preferred as compared to complex research frame work. Scientific research thus: relies on empirical evidence, utilizes relevant concepts, is committed to objectivity, adheres to ethical neutrality, describes the methodology used, and aims at formulating theories
- Description Explanation Generalization and Prediction
- Exploration involves FAMILIARIZING a researcher with a topic. Exploration: of REALITY. Provides INSIGHT. Exploration begins WHEN researcher does NOT HAVE ENOUGH information on the topic. Exploration SATISFIES the researcher's CURIOSITY and desire for IMPROVED UNDERSTANDING. Exploration TESTS the FEASIBILITY of undertaking a more extensive study. Exploration HELPS develop the METHODS that will be used in a study.
- Description involves describing SITUATIONS AND EVENTS through scientific observation. Scientific descriptions are typically more ACCURATE AND PRECISE than causal ones. Describes certain CHARACTERISTICS, OR FUNCTIONS, that management is likely to be interested in, such as MARKET CONDITIONS, CUSTOMERS’ OPINIONS, PURCHASE BEHAVIOR etc. For example, the U. S. Census uses descriptive social research in its examination of characteristics of the U. S. population.
- Explanation involves answering the questions of WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, AND HOW. EXPLANATORY STUDIES answer questions OF WHY. For example, an explanatory analysis of the 2002 General Social Survey (GSS) data indicates that 38 percent of men and 30 percent of women said marijuana should be legalized, while 55 percent of liberals and 27 percent of conservatives said the same. Given these statistics, you could start to DEVELOP AN EXPLANATION FOR ATTITUDES TOWARD MARIJUANA LEGALIZATION. In addition, further study of gender and political orientation could lead to a deeper explanation of this issue. Idiographic explanation - a "full", detailed, in-depth understanding of a case; for practical reasons, only a few subjects are studied in this way. Nomothetic explanation - a generalized understanding of a given case, with the goal of finding new factors that can account for many of the variations in a given phenomenon; is applicable to many subjects.
- Generalization means to GO FROM DETAILED FACTS TO A BROAD STATEMENT, idea, or principle. Generalized statements are not always accurate. Generalization is an ACT OF REASONING that involves drawing BROAD INFERENCES FROM PARTICULAR OBSERVATIONS, is widely-acknowledged as a quality standard in quantitative research, but is more controversial in qualitative research.
- A statement about WHAT WILL BE OBSERVED before the actual event, a FORETELLING of some FUTURE HAPPENING. The ability to make accurate predictions about the phenomena under consideration is usually considered as the ultimate way TO TEST THE EXPLANATORY POWER OF A SCIENTIFIC THEORY. A prediction is like an estimation in math Like a hypothesis in science Like a weather forecast A statement about the way things will happen Not exact, but based on what you know, see or have experienced A statement that can be checked & revised. (adjusted) A strategy that makes the reader… think & stay tuned
- Research can be undertaken for two different purposes: Solve a currently EXISTING PROBLEM in the work setting. GENERATE NEW Knowledge in a particular area or to develop a base of knowledge UPON WHICH THEORY CAN BE BUILT.
- # Applied research is conducted in response to a SPECIFIC PROBLEM, which requires a solution. # The major purpose of applied research is to answer practical and useful questions about POLICIES, PROGRAMS, PROJECTS, PROCEDURES, OR ORGANIZATIONS. # BUSINESS EXECUTIVES, therefore, take interest in applied research. # An applied research is concerned with knowledge that has IMMEDIATE APPLICATIONS. # It is also called DECISIONAL RESEARCH
- Fundamental research is undertaken to IMPROVE OUR UNDERSTANDING of certain problems that commonly occur in organizational setting, and HOW TO SOLVE them. It is undertaken for the sole purpose of ADDING TO OUR KNOWLEDGE that is fundamental and generalizable. The purpose of fundamental research is NOT TO APPLY THE FINDINGS to solve an immediate problem at hand, but RATHER TO GENERATE MORE KNOWLEDGE and understanding of the phenomena and problems that occur in several organizations, and TO BUILD THEORIES based on the research results. Such theories subsequently become the foundation for further study of the phenomena. The research works of professors, scholars, and other researchers devoted to generate new knowledge in particular areas of their interest can be fundamental research. It is also known as pure or basic research.
- Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been studied or thoroughly investigated in the past . Exploratory type of research is usually conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but usually doesn't lead to a conclusive result. Also referred to as interpretative research or grounded theory approach, the outcomes of this research provide answers to questions like what, how and why. It answers questions like how and why aiding the researcher to acquire more information about the research. Exploratory research is often qualitative in nature. However, a study with a large sample conducted in an exploratory manner can be quantitative as well. Primary research In primary research, your data is collected directly from primary sources: your participants. There is a variety of ways to collect primary data. Some examples include: Survey methodology: Sending a survey out to the student body asking them if they would eat vegan meals Focus groups: Compiling groups of 8–10 students and discussing what they think of vegan options for dining hall food Interviews: Interviewing students entering and exiting the dining hall, asking if they would eat vegan meals Secondary research In secondary research, your data is collected from preexisting primary research, such as experiments or surveys. Some other examples include: Case studies: Health of an all-vegan diet Literature reviews: Preexisting research about students’ eating habits and how they have changed over time Online polls, surveys, blog posts, or interviews; social media: Have other schools done something similar? EXAMPLE: Organizations conduct two major research when working on a new product or service. The first one is conducted before developing the product while the second one is conducted after product development. Our focus will be on the exploratory research conducted after product development. For tech products, it is called the beta testing stage of product development. Collecting information on a previously unexplored topic can be challenging. Exploratory research can help you narrow down your topic and formulate a clear hypothesis, as well as giving you the “lay of the land” on your topic.
- Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions. There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research: Observational, Case Study and Survey methods. Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories. It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens. Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. For example, an investor considering an investment in the ever-changing Amsterdam housing market needs to understand what the current state of the market is, how it changes (increasing or decreasing), and when it changes (time of the year) before asking for the why. This is where descriptive research comes in.
- Evaluation research is the formal, objective measurement and appraisal of the extent to which a given activity, project, or program has achieved its objectives. TYPES OF EVALUATION RESEARCH Although there are many different types of approaches to evaluation research, we will specifically explore the following three techniques that are most commonly used: Formative Evaluation This is a type of evaluation research conducted before embarking on a project or activity. It involves assessing the different needs and wants of a target market to set the tone for the project by allowing organizations to set appropriate objectives for it. Mid-Term Evaluation As the name suggests, mid-term evaluation is conducted while a project is in action to assess how far a project has come and whether or not it is in line with the set goals and objectives that were determined for it. In mid-term evaluation, organizations can discern whether any changes or modifications are required to the current strategies being implemented on the off chance that the project isn’t going in the right direction. Summative Evaluation The summative evaluation research, also referred to as end-term evaluation, is conducted immediately after completing a project. It is used to evaluate the results or output of the project concerning the objectives and projected results. This form of evaluative research allows researchers to measure the degree of success of a project, and these results can be shared with stakeholders as well as prospective investors.