The content in the slide are solely depended upon the syllabus of Purbanchal University for third-semester students. This content of the respiratory system will be enough for B.Pharmacy students studying anatomy and physiology
Unit-III, Chapter-1- Respiratory System.pptAudumbar Mali
B. Pharm. First Year, Sem:II,
Unit III
Respiratory system 10 hours
Anatomy of respiratory system with special reference to anatomy of lungs,
mechanism of respiration, regulation of respiration
Lung Volumes and capacities transport of respiratory gases, artificial respiration,
and resuscitation methods.
Unit-III, Chapter-1- Respiratory System.pptAudumbar Mali
B. Pharm. First Year, Sem:II,
Unit III
Respiratory system 10 hours
Anatomy of respiratory system with special reference to anatomy of lungs,
mechanism of respiration, regulation of respiration
Lung Volumes and capacities transport of respiratory gases, artificial respiration,
and resuscitation methods.
Respiration Process which involves taking in oxygen into the cells, using it for releasing energy by burning food and then eliminating the waste products like carbon dioxide and water from the body It is a catabolic process as the food is broken down into simpler form. In short, respiration is a biochemical activity taking place with in the protoplasm of the cell and results in the liberation of energy
2. Breathing and Respiration BREATHING 1. Mechanism by which organisms obtain oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide 2. It is a physical process 3. It involves lungs of the organism RESPIRATION 1. It includes breathing and oxidation of food in the cells of the organism to release energy 2. It is a biochemical process 3. It involves the mitochondria in the cells where food is oxidized to release energy
Respiration Process which involves taking in oxygen into the cells, using it for releasing energy by burning food and then eliminating the waste products like carbon dioxide and water from the body It is a catabolic process as the food is broken down into simpler form. In short, respiration is a biochemical activity taking place with in the protoplasm of the cell and results in the liberation of energy
2. Breathing and Respiration BREATHING 1. Mechanism by which organisms obtain oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide 2. It is a physical process 3. It involves lungs of the organism RESPIRATION 1. It includes breathing and oxidation of food in the cells of the organism to release energy 2. It is a biochemical process 3. It involves the mitochondria in the cells where food is oxidized to release energy
The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for the respiration process in an organism. It is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between an organism and the environment.
The branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases of the ears, nose, and throat is called Otorhinolaryngology.
RESPIRATION- The oxidative process occurring within living cells by which the chemical energy of organic molecules is released in a series of metabolic steps involving the consumption of oxygen and the liberation of carbon dioxide and water is called as respiration.
Anatomy of respiratory system with special reference to anatomy of lungs,
mechanism of respiration, regulation of respiration
Lung Volumes and capacities transport of respiratory gases, artificial respiration,
and resuscitation methods.
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways, lungs, and blood vessels. The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like carbon dioxide.
This presentation is about the current trends in pharmacy profession. It will give the brief insight about the direction in which current pharmacy market is going.
Through this ppt you could learn what is Wilcoxon Signed Ranked Test. This will teach you the condition and criteria where it can be run and the way to use the test.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
2. Course Content
Anatomy of respiratory organs and its functions
Respiration
Mechanism and regulation of respiration
Respiratory volumes and vital capacity
Acid base balance and brief description of
respiratory system
Bronchopulmonary system
Bronchopulmonary segments
Nervous control of respiration
Hypoxia, anoxia, hyperventilation
3. The respiratory system provides the route by which the
supply of oxygen present in the atmospheric air gains
entry to the body and it provides the route of excretion
of carbon dioxide.
Blood provides the transport system for these gases
between the lungs and cells of the body .
The exchange of the gases between the blood and the
lungs is called external respiration and between the
blood and cells is called internal respiration .
4. Organs of respiratory system
It includes
1. Upper respiratory tract : Nose, Pharynx,larynx
2. Lower respiratory tract : trachea, Bronchi, lungs
3. Coverings: Pleura, muscle of breathing,
intercoastal muscles and diaphragm
7. Nose (external nose)
It is only externally visible part of respiratory system . It has
followings parts
1. Root : the area between the eyebrows
2. Bridge: it is the area that connects the root to other parts of
nose
3. Dorsum nasi : it is the total length of the nose.
4. Nasal septum: it divides the nose into right and left part
5. Alae : the tip part of the nose is called alae and it forms the
lateral wall of nostril
6. Apex : it is the tip of nose
7. Nostril : it is the external opening of nose
8. philtrum : it connects the upper lips and the apex of nose
8.
9. The nose has a skeletal framework,which is partly
bony and partly cartillaginous.
The bony part is contributed by the nasal bones
and frontal processes of maxilla.
The cartilages are superior and inferior cartilages
and septal cartilage.
10. Internal Nose (Nasal Cavity)
It contain the nasal cavity
Nasal cavity has two parts
1. Superior Part : it has olfactory receptor for sense
of smell
2. Other part : it has respiratory mucosa. It has thin
wall vein which warm the air. It has mucus gland
which contains mucus . Mucus moist the air,
entrap the bacteria and the lysozyme present in
mucus destroy the bacteria.
The respiratory mucosa has ciliated epithelium
which moves the contaminated mucosa towards the
throat and reaches the stomach . It is finally digested
by juice present in stomach.
11. The LATERAL WALL OF NOSE
The lateral wall of the nose is irregular,presence
of 3 bony projections called conchae or
turbinates.
Their elevations are called superior, middle and
inferior nasal conchae according to their position
on the lateral wall of nasal cavity.
Function
1. The conchae increases the surface area of
nasal cavity,
2. prevent dehydration,
3. disturb the air flow which clean the air and warm
the air .
12. Paranasal air sinuses
Paranasal sinuses are a group of four paired air-
filled spaces that surround the nasal cavity.
They are
1. The maxillary sinuses are located under
the eyes
2. The frontal sinuses are above the eyes
3. The ethmoidal sinuses are between the eyes
4. The sphenoidal sinuses are behind the eyes
13.
14. Functions of paranasal sinuses
1)They reduce the weight of the skull
2)The inhaled air is warmed and humidified
3)They add resonance to the voice
4)The mucous secreted by the mucous glands
help to trap the dust particles in the inhaled air,
the cilia remove the dust particles
15. Pharynx
12-14cm long muscular tube, extend from nose to
larynx
The pharynx is divided into three portions
1. Nasopharynx : it connected with nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx : it is connected with oral cavity
laryngopharynx : connected to larynx
16.
17. The pharynx or the throat serves as a passage for the
two system- digestive and respiratory systems
Air can enter the pharynx either from the two nasal
cavities or from the mouth to the larynx
At the lower end air proceeds to the larynx, while food
is swallowed into esophagous
The right and the left eustachian tubes open into the
nasopharynx, connecting the middle ear with upper
respiratory tract
It also contains the pharyangeal (Adenoids) tonsil
During swallowing the nasal and oral parts are
separated by soft palate , Uvula .
18. 1)Nasopharynx
Nasopharynx:The nasal part of the pharynx lies
behind the nose above the level of soft palate
The adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal
tonsils, are lymphoid tissue structures located in
the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. Waldeyer's
tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of
lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and
oropharynx.
On its lateral walls are the two openings of the
auditory tubes,one leading to each middle ear.
19. 2)Oropharynx
The oral part of the pharynx lies behind the
mouth,extending from below the level of the soft
palate to the level of the upper part of the body of
the 3rd cervical vertebra.
The lateral walls of the pharynx blend with the
soft palate to form two folds on each side.
Between each pair of folds is a collection of
lymphoid tissue called the palatine tonsil
20. 3)Laryngopharynx
The laryngeal part of the pharynx extends from
the oropharynx above and continues as the
oesophagus below i.e from the level of the 3rd to
the 6th cervical vertebrae
21. Functions
1)Passageway for air and food:The pharynx is
involved in both respiratory and digestive
systems.
Air passes through the nasal and oral secretions
and food through the oral and laryngeal
secretions
2)Warming and humidifying:By the same methods
as in the nose, the air is further warmed and
moistened as it passes through the pharynx
22. 3)Taste:There are olfactory nerve endings of the
sense of taste in the epithelium of the oral and
pharyngeal parts
4)Hearing:The auditory tube,extending from the
nasopharynx to each middle ear,allows air to
enter the middle ear.
Satisfactory hearing depends on the presence of
air at atmospheric pressure on each side of the
tympanic membrane
23. Functions of pharynx
5)Protection:The lymphatic tissue of the
pharyngeal and laryngeal tosils produces
antibodies in response antigens e.g bacteria.
The tonsils are larger in children and tend to
atrophy in adults
6)Speech:The pharynx functions in speech,by
acting as a resonating chamber for sound
ascending from the larynx,it helps (together with
the sinuses)to give the voice its individual
characteristics
24. Larynx
It extend from the root of the tongue to the trachea .
It is a cartilaginous and muscular organ also known
as voice box .
It is made up of nine cartilages, 3 paired and 3
unpaired united by muscles and liagements
Paired : arytenoid, corniculate and cuneiform
Unpaired : thyroid, cricoid and epiglottis
The thyroid cartilages or Adams apple is the largest
cartilage in larynx. In male thyroid cartilage increase
in size at puberty
The leaf shaped epiglottis is attached to the top
border of the thyroid cartilage . It has the hinged,
door-like action at the entrance of larynx
During swallowing it acts as lid to prevent food from
entering the larynx.
25.
26. Functions
Sounds production
Protects the lower respiratory tract during
swallowing
Passage of air
Warming and humidifying the air
Speech
27. Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is a cylindrical tube
Is a continuation of larynx
10-11cm long and lies in front of esophagous
Made of up 16-20C shaped rings
Inferiorly divided into two main bronchus at carina (the
lowest cartilage)
It also contain ciliated epithelium which can propel the
mucosa filled with dust and other debris .
The trachea functions as a simple passage way for air to
reach the lungs. When it becomes blocks blocked from
swelling or blocked a tracheostomy is necessary .
It has open part and closed part. The closed part contain
cartilage and prevents from collapsing of trachea during
breathing while the open parts helps in expanding during
swallowing .
28.
29. Function
Maintains patency of airways
Cilia on the wall helps in sweeping the mucus and
the foreign particles upwards towards the larynx
Warm and humidify the air
Helps in prevention of aspiration by cough reflex
30. Bronchi
Two main bronchus formed by division of trachea
They are the primary bronchi
Right main bronchus : wider, shorter(2.5cm) and
more vertical
Left main bronchus : Narrower, Longer (5cm)
The bronchi enters into lungs through Hilum .
• The bronchi subdivides into the secondary
bronchi or the lobar bronchi which deliver the
oxygen to the lobes of lungs .
• The secondary divides into tertiary bronchi or the
segmental bronchi
31. The tertiary bronchi divide further in another three
branching's known as 4th order, 5th order and 6th
order segmental bronchi which are also referred
to as subsegmental bronchi. These branch into
many smaller bronchioles which divide
into terminal bronchioles, each of which then
gives rise to several respiratory bronchioles,
which go on to divide into two to eleven alveolar
ducts. There are five or six alveolar
sacs associated with each alveolar duct.
The alveolus is the basic anatomical unit of gas
exchange in the lung.
32.
33. Lungs
The lungs are the two cone shaped organs lying
on each side of the midline in the thoracic cavity
extended from the diaphragm to about one half
inches above the clavicle.
The lung are composed of bronchi and smaller air
passages, alveoli, connective tissue, blood
vessels, nerves .
The right lungs has 3 lobes and the left lungs has
2 lobes
The lungs is covered by pleura
The area between two lungs is called
mediastinum
The adult lung is a spongy mass and is frequently
blue-grey in color because of inhaled of dust but
34.
35. Pleura
It is the serous membrane that surrounds the lung
Has two layers
parietal pleura is the outer layer
Visceral pleura is the inner layer
The space between two layer is called pleural
cavity
The pleural cavity is filled with pleural fluid
This fluid helps two layers to glide over each
other, preventing the friction between them during
breathing .
This double pleural membrane arrangement
allows respiration with minimal friction
36. Alveolus
It is also called air sac
The smallest bronchial tubes subdivide into very
tiny tubes called alveolar duts
The alveolar ducts blossoms out several alveolar
sacs resembling clusters of grapes
A strong network of capillaries surround each
alveolus and it is at this point in respiratory tract
that the exchange of gases between blood and
inhaled air takes place.
37. Respiration
Respiration is the movement of oxygen from the
outside environment to the cells within tissues
and the transport of carbon dioxide in the
opposite direction.
The respiration involves following processes
1. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation
2. External respiration
3. Transport of 02 to the tissue
4. Internal respiration
5. Transport of CO2 from tissues
38.
39. 1.Breathing or Pulmonary Ventilation
This is movement of air into and out of the lungs.
Breathing supplies oxygen to the alveoli, and
eliminates carbon dioxide.
The main muscles involved in breathing are the
intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
There are 11 pairs of intercostal muscles occupying
the spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs. They are
arranged in two layers, the external and internal
intercostal muscles.
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscular structure
separating the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Breathing depends upon changes in pressure and
volume in the thoracic cavity. Since air flows from an
area of high pressure to an area of low pressure,
changing the pressure inside the lungs determines
the direction of airflow.
Breathing involves two process
40. i. Inhalation:
It takes place when the volume of thoracic cavity is
increased and the air pressure is decreased.
Simultaneous contraction of the external intercostal
muscles and the diaphragm expands the thorax.
As the diaphragm + external intercostals contracts
(moves downward) lung volume increases.
It involves following events
First of all, external intercoastal muscle contracts and
internal intercoastal muscles relaxes.
Due to contraction of external intercoastal muscles, ribs
is pulled upward, resulting in increase in thoracic cavity
size
The thoracic cavity further enlarges due to contraction of
diaphragm, lowering the diaphragm and increases the
size of thoracic cavity.
With increase in size of thorax, lungs expand
simultaneously.
As lungs expands, the air pressure is reduced inside, so
41. ii. Expiration
It takes place when the size of thoracic cavity is
reduced and air pressure is increased.
involves following events
The internal intercoastal muscle contracts and
external intercoastal muscles relaxes.
Due to contraction of internal intercoastal muscle, ribs
are pulled inward, resulting in decrease in size of
thoracic cavity
Furthermore the diaphragm is pushed upward due to
its relaxation
With the decrease in size of thoracic cavity, lungs is
compressed
As lungs is compressed, pressure increases, so the
air is forced outside.
42. 2. External Respiration
This is the exchange of gases by diffusion between
alveoli and blood in the alveolar capillaries, across
respiratory membrane.
Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide depends on
pressure differences, e.g. between atmospheric air
and the blood, or blood and the tissues.
Gas exchange during the respiration process takes
place in the alveolus at its surface that separates the
alveolus with the capillary.
The exchange of O2 and CO2 occurs through
diffusion which is the net movement of gas molecules
from a region that has a higher partial pressure to
another region that has a lower partial pressure.
The venous blood in alveolar capillaries contains high
level of CO2 and low level of O2.
Co2 then diffuses from higher level (venous blood) to
lower level (alveoli) until equilibrium is maintained. By
the same process O2 diffuses from alveoli to venous
43.
44. 3. Transport of Oxygen to Tissue
Oxygen is carried in the blood to the tissue in two
from:
i) Oxyhaemoglobin (98.5%): it is a chemical
combination of O2 with haemoglobin
Hb4 + 4O2…………………………………………
Hb4O8 (oxyhaemoglobin)
ii) Solution in plasma water (1.5%): O2 dissolve in
plasma of blood and carried to tissues.
when the level of O2 is high in blood, it combines with
haemoglobin to from oxyhaemoglobin.
Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable, and under certain
conditions readily dissociates releasing oxygen.
Factors that increase dissociation include low O2
levels, low pH and raised temperature.
45. 4. Internal respiration
internal respiration is exchange of gases
which takes places in tissue, so also known as
cellular respiration.
In tissue, oxygen carried in the form of
Oxyhaemoglobin get dissociated to liberating free
O2.
Hb4O8———dissociates to give ——— Hb + O2
The free O2 then oxidized the glucose in the
presence of respiratory enzymes to liberate CO2,
water and energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ———- 6CO2 + 6H2O +
Energy
46. 5. Transport of CO2 from tissue to
Lungs
Carbon dioxide is one of the waste products of
metabolism.
It is excreted by the lungs and is transported by
three mechanisms:
i) as Carbonic acid (H2CO3) (7%): some CO2
dissolved in the plasma to form carbonic acid
carbon dioxide mixed with water of blood plasma
to form carbonic acid.
CO2+ H2O——————H2CO3
47. ii) bicarbonate ions (HCO3−) in the plasma (70%)
carbonic acid formed in blood plasma quickly ionizes
to from bicarbonates and hydrogen ions in the
presence of enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
CO2 + H2O—————H+ + HCO3-
bicarbonate ions combined with sodium or potassium
present in blood to form sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3) or Potasssium bicarbonate (KHCO3) and
transported in this form
iii) as carbaminohaemoglobin (23%): some CO2
combines with Haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin in RBCs.
CO2 + NHbNH2————–HbNH.COOH
(carbaminohaemoglobin).
48. Regulation of respiration
Control of respiration is normally involuntary.
Voluntary control is exerted during activities such
as speaking and singing.
Special centres in the nervous system called ‘The
respiratory centres of the brain’ regulate different
aspects of respiration
49. Movements of thoracic cage
Inspiration causes enlargement of thoracic cage .
Change in the size of thoracic cavity occurs due to the
movements of four units of structure:
1. Thoracic lid
2. Upper costal series
3. Lower costal series
4. Diaphragm
49
50. 1. Thoracic lid (thoracic operculum) is formed by manubrium
sterni and the first pair of ribs. Due to contraction of scaleni
muscles, the first ribs move upwards to a more horizontal
position. The movement of first ribs draws the manubrium
sterni upwards and forwards increasing the anteroposterior
diameter of the thoracic cage.
2. Upper costal series is constituted by second to sixth pair of
ribs. The contraction of external intercostal muscles causes
elevation of these ribs and the sternum moves upwards and
forwards. It increases the anteroposterior diameter of the
thoracic cage.
Simultaneously, the central portions of these ribs (arches of
ribs) move upwards and outwards to a more horizontal
position. This increases the transverse diameter of thoracic
cage.
50
51. 3. Lower costal series is formed by the seventh to tenth pair
of ribs. These ribs also show outward and upward
movements. This movement increases the transverse
diameter of the thoracic cage. The eleventh and twelfth
pairs of ribs are the floating ribs, which are not involved in
changing the size of thoracic cage.
4. Diaphragm before inspiration is dome-shaped with
convexity facing upwards. During inspiration, due to the
contraction, the muscle fibers are shortened. Diaphragm is
flattened. Flattening of diaphragm increases the vertical
diameter of the thoracic cage.
51
52. Respiratory center in Brain
The neuronal signals transmitted between
respiratory centres of the brain and
the muscles in the chest and diaphragm modulate
respiration.
There are three main centres of the brain that
regulate breathing.
They are present in the medulla and the pons
region of the brain. They regulate breathing by
stimulating the contraction of the intercostal
muscles and the diaphragm.
mainly two respiratory center are present one at
medullary center called medullary respiratory
center and another at pons called pontine
53.
54. Respiratory Rhythm Centre (In
medulla)
Inspiration is followed by expiration, thus creating a
regular, oscillating cycle of breathing.
This is the respiratory rhythm. A special centre in the
medulla region of the brain is primarily responsible for
regulating respiratory rhythms.
This is the ‘Respiratory Rhythm Center’. This centre
produces rhythmic nerve impulses that contract the
muscles responsible for inspiration (diaphragm and
external intercostal muscles)
Normally, expiration happens when these muscles
relax
They are two types called dorsal respiratory group
(DRG) and Ventral Respiratory group (VRG)
55. Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)
Inspiratory neurons or ‘I’ neurons
Situated on the dorsal aspect of medulla oblongata in and
around the nucleus of tractus solitarius (NTS)
Sets the basic respiratory rate.
It is autorhythmic and Produces inspiratory ramp
Inspiratory ramp is type of electrical activity which gradually
increases and then stops suddenly.
Stimulates the inspiratory muscles (diaphragm) to contract.
56. Ventral Respiratory Group
Situated in the ventral aspect of medulla oblongata.
Contains both Inspiratory and expiratory neurons.
It is driven by DRG.
Inactive during normal, quiet respiration.
At times of increased ventilation, signals from the dorsal
group stimulate the ventral group.
The ventral group then stimulates both inspiratory and
expiratory muscles. E.g., the abdominal muscles are
stimulated to contract and help force expiration.
57. Pneumotaxic Centre (in Pons)
This centre regulates the functions of the
respiratory rhythm centre.
It controls both the rate and pattern of breathing.
The pneumotaxic centre can send neural signals
to reduce the duration of inspiration, thereby
affecting the rate of respiration. The actions of
this centre prevent the lungs from over-inflating.
It also regulates the amount of air that the body
takes in, in a single breath. If this centre is
absent, it increases the depth of breathing and
decreases the respiratory rate. It performs the
opposite function of the Apneustic centre.
58. Apneustic Centre (In Pons)
This centre promotes inspiration by constantly
stimulating the neurons in the medulla region. It
sends signals that oppose the action of the
signals from the pneumotaxic centre. It sends
positive signals to the neurons that regulate
inspiration, thereby controlling the intensity of
breathing
59.
60. Connections of respiratory centers
Efferent Pathway Afferent Pathway
Nerve fibres from respiratory
centres
Terminate on motor neurons in
the anterior horn cells of cervical
and thoracic segments of spinal
cord.
From motor neurons two sets of
nerve fibres arise:
1. Phrenic nerves (C3 to C5)-
Supply diaphragm
2. Intercostal nerve fibres (T1 to
T11)- supply external
intercostals)
Vagus nerves also contains some
efferent fibres from respiratory
centres
Respiratory centres receive
afferent impulses from :
1. Peripheral chemoreceptors and
baroreceptors via branches of
glossopharyngeal and vagus
nerves
2. Stretch receptors of lungs via
vagus nerve
By receiving afferent impulses
from these receptors,
respiratory centres modulate
the movements of thoracic
cage and lungs through efferent
nerve fibres
61. Hering-breuer inflation reflex
It is a protective reflex that restricts inspiration and prevents
overstretching of lung tissues. It is initiated by the stimulation
of stretch receptors of air passage.
62. Chemoreceptors
These are the receptors that respond to changes
in the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon
dioxide and also the change in pH in the blood
and cerebrospinal fluid .
They are two types
a. Central chemoreceptors
b. Peripheral chemoreceptors
63. Central chemoreceptors
These receptors are located in the central
nervous system more specifically close to the
surface of the medulla .
The receptors are mainly monitored by the level
of CO2 and Hydrogen ion present.
When the level of the CO2 increase it start firing
the signals to the respiratory system for breathing
faster and releasing the Co2 from body .
Also when co2 levels increase the Hydrogen ion
levels (low pH) also increases and it stimulates
the respiratory centers.
But it doesn’t respond to the increase oxygen
64.
65. Peripheral chemoreceptors
These are located in the arch of aorta and carotid
bodies.
They are more sensitive to the small rise in
arterial CO2 then similar low arterial o2 levels.
The impulses generated in peripheral
chemoreceptors are conveyed by
glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves to the
medulla and the stimulate the respiratory center.
The rate and the depth of the breathing are then
increased .
Also increase in blood Ph increase the activity of
peripheral receptors.
66. Volumes and Capacities
The lung volumes that can be measured using a
spirometer include tidal volume (TV), expiratory
reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory reserve
volume (IRV) and residual volume .
1. The tidal volume : The amount of air breathed in
or out during normal respiration. It amounts about
500ml in the adult male.
67. Volumes and capacities
Tidal volume (TV):
• The amount of air that enters or leaves the lung in a single
respiratory cycle at rest .
• The amount is about 500ml in the adult male.
Alveolar volume : out of 500ml of TV only 350ml reaches
the alveolar for gaseous exchange .
Dead space volume : out of 500ml of TV 150ml remains in
the anatomical dead space and not available for gaseous
exchange .
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) :
The volume of which can be taken in forcefully after
normal inhalation .
It is usually equals to 3000ml (3ltrs).
68. Inspiratory capacity (IC) :
It is the TV plus IRV .
This is the amount or air (3.5ltr) a person can
breathe in beginning at the normal expiratory
level and distending the lungs to maximum
amount.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV):
It is the maximum extra volume of air that can be
expired by forceful expiration after the end of a
normal tidal expiration
This normally amounts to about 1.1 ltr.
Residual volume (RV):
It is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after
the most forceful expiration.
69. Functional residual volume (FRV):
ERV+RV
This is the amount of air that remains in lungs at
the end of normal expiration (2.3ltr)
Vital capacity (TC) :
IRV+TV+ERV
Volume of air forcefully exhaled after forceful
inhalation
It is the maximum amount of air a person can
expel from lungs after first filling the lungs to their
maximum extent and then expiring to maximum
extent .
Its about 4.6ltr.
70. Total lung capacity (TLC):
VC+ RV
It is the maximum volume to which the lungs can
be expanded with the greatest possible effort
It is about 5.8 ltr
71.
72. Dead space
The regions of the respiratory system that contain
the air but are not exchanging oxygen and carbon
dioxide with blood.
Because of inheritent structure are not capable of
exchange with blood
Conducting zone, till terminal bronchioles
73. Acid base balance
The pH of blood is 7.35-7.45.
Your blood needs the right balance of acidic and
basic (alkaline) compounds to function properly.
This is called the acid-base balance.
Acid and alkaline levels are measured on a pH
scale. An increase in acidity causes pH levels to
fall. An increase in alkaline causes pH levels to
rise.
When the levels of acid in your blood are too
high, it’s called acidosis. When your blood is too
alkaline, it is called alkalosis.
Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis are due to a
problem with the lungs
74. Acidosis is the condition in which there is too
much of acid in the blood. Since co2 is acidic, the
condition of acidosis will occur if there is too much
co2 inn blood. This occurs when respiration is
restricted and co2 given off by cells begin to build
up.
Alkalosis in which there is too little acid in blood.
This occurs less frequently but can occur when
respiration is over active. In case of
hyperventilation the exchanges of gases occur
too rapidly, there is too little of co2 in blood and
pH moves towards alkaline .
the acid level of the blood affects the
concentration of sodium and potassium level so
that abnormal acid level can produced serious
75. The respiratory system has responsibility for
helping to maintain acid level of blood at normal
range. If any reason the blood become acidic the
respiratory system is stimulated to increase
activity to give off more co2 and thereby to lower
the acid level back to normal.
If any reason the basic level increase then the
respiratory system hold the co2 expiration and
builds up its level and maintain the blood pH.
77. Acid base balance
The concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution is a
measure of the acidity of the solution.
Control of hydrogen ion in body fluids is an important factor in
maintaining a stable internal environment.
An acid substances releases hydrogen ions when in solution.
A basic (alkaline) substance accepts hydrogen ions often with the
release of hydroxyl (OH-) ions.
pH scale
It is the standard scale for measurement of hydrogen ion
concentration in solution.
The scale measures from 0 to 14.
pH > 7 = basic; pH<7 = acid; pH = 7 = neutral
78. pH values of body fluids
BODY FLUIDS pH
BLOOD 7.35 TO 7.45
SALIVA 5.4 TO 7.5
GASTRIC JUICE 1.5 TO 3.5
BILE 6 TO 8.5
URINE 4. TO 8.0
79. Buffers
A buffer solution is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture
of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or vice versa.
Buffers resists the change in pH when small amount of acid or
alkali are added to it.
Despite the constant cellular production of acid and alkaline
substances, body pH is kept stables by systems of buffering
chemicals in body fluids and tissues.
The organs most active in this way are the lungs and the kidneys.
CO2 increases(H+) in the body fluids because it combines with
water to form carbonic acid, which then dissociates into a
bicarbonate ion and hydrogen.
CO2+H2O = H2CO3 = H+HCO3
80. BUFFERS-lungs and kidneys
• Lungs regulate the blood pH as they excrete carbon dioxide (CO2)
and regulates its level.
The brain detects rising H+ in the blood and stimulates breathing
causing increase CO2 loss and fall in H+.
Conversely, if blood pH becomes too alkaline, the brain can reduce
the respiration rate to increase C02 levels and increase (H+),
restoring pH towards normal.
The kidneys regulate blood pH by increasing or decreasing the
excretion of hydrogen and bicarbonate ions as required.
If pH falls, hydrogen ion excretion is increased and bicarbonate
conserved, the reverse happens if pH rises.
Other buffer system include body proteins, which absorb excess H+
and phosphate which is important for controlling pH inside cells.`
81. Acidosis and Alkalosis
When the pH falls below 7.35 and all the reserves of
alkaline buffers are used up, the condition of acidosis
exists.
When the pH rises above 7.45, the increased alkali uses up
all the acid reserve and state of alkalosis exists.
82. Metabolic and respiratory acidosis
Metabolic acidosis
The metabolic acidosis is diagnosed with decrease HCO3.e.g
diabetic ketoacidosis, alcoholic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis
Drugs- salicylate intoxication, methanol,
Loss of bicarbonate-diarrhea
Respiratory acidosis
Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased
ventilation(hypoventilation) increases the concentrations of CO2
in the blood and decreases the blood pH.
e.g. acute Myasthenia gravis, chronic COPD
83. Metabolic and respiratory alkalosis
Metabolic alkalosis
It is characterised by high HCO3.
Loss of HCl from vomiting, antacids intake, severe potassium
depletion, intestinal alkalosis-chloride diarrhea.
Respiratory alkalosis
It occurs when hyperventilation reduces the pCO2,increasing
serum pH.
CNS mediated=Trauma , infection hyperventilation syndrome-
voluntary, anxiety.
hypoxia-high altitude, hypotension, severe anemia
Pulmonary disease-pneumonia, pulmonary edema, pulmonary
embolism
84. Hypoxia, anoxia and hyperventilation
Hypoxia is defined as reduced availability of oxygen to the
tissues.
Causes of hypoxia:
Oxygen tension in arterial blood
Oxygen carrying capacity of blood
Rate of blood flow
Utilization of oxygen by the cells
Anoxia refers to the absence of oxygen.
Anoxia means a total depletion in the level of oxygen ,
an extreme form of hypoxia or low oxygen.
Since there is no possibility for total absence of oxygen
in living conditions, the use of this term is abandoned.
84
85. 85
Features Hypoxic
hypoxia
Anemic
hypoxia
Stagnant
hypoxia
Histotoxic
hypoxia
PO2 in
arterial blood
Reduced Normal Normal Normal
O2 carrying
capacity of
blood
Normal Reduced Normal Normal
Rate of blood
flow
Normal Normal Reduced Normal
Utilization of
O2 by tissues
Normal Normal Normal Reduced
Efficacy of
O2 therapy
100% 75% 50% Not useful
Characteristics features of different types of hypoxia
86. Hyperventilation is the increased pulmonary ventilation
due to forced breathing.
It is an increase in alveolar ventilation that leads to
hypocapnea.
Both rate and force of breathing are increased.
It causes apnea (temporary cessation of breathing).