The document discusses various aspects of thinking including its definition, nature, types, levels of development, and factors that can alter thinking. Some key points:
- Thinking is a cognitive process involving mental activities like perception, imagination, and recollection. It is goal-directed but not directly observable.
- There are different types of thinking including perceptual, abstract, convergent, divergent, reflective, and critical thinking.
- Piaget's stages of cognitive development include sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational periods. Language and communication are important for thinking.
- Factors like emotions, suggestions, superstitions, and improper defense mechanisms can irrationally alter or impair
forgetfulness is very common these days. the causes can be either organic or psychological. there are numerous psychological theories behind it. The presentation will also stress upon the types of forgetting. As a remedial measure their are manyy ways by which memory power can be boosed up.
Personality: Meaning –Determinants of Personality: Types Theory, Trait Theory and Developmental Theory – Integrated Personality – Assessment of Personality: Projective, Non-Projective techniques and Dream Analysis.
forgetfulness is very common these days. the causes can be either organic or psychological. there are numerous psychological theories behind it. The presentation will also stress upon the types of forgetting. As a remedial measure their are manyy ways by which memory power can be boosed up.
Personality: Meaning –Determinants of Personality: Types Theory, Trait Theory and Developmental Theory – Integrated Personality – Assessment of Personality: Projective, Non-Projective techniques and Dream Analysis.
Intellectual development (Piagetian, Psychometric, and Classical Approach)reneegomez
I was assigned to report about the Intellectual Development of children. I discussed about 3 different approaches in learning. The Piagetian which is from Jean Piaget, Psychometric which talks about the measurement of intelligence, and the Classical Approach from Ivan Pavlov. I hope that this slide will be useful to you.
Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
This course deals with the study of the patterns of human development especially focusing on the cognitive, biological, social, moral and emotional development of the child and adolescent learners.
Learning
Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process.
The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors.
Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured.
Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early twentieth century. While behavioral approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response.
How Classical Conditioning Works
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.
Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increases in behaviors where punishment would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement.
How Operant Conditioning Works
Observational Learning
Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.As demonstrated in his classic "Bobo Doll" experiments, people will imitate the actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
2. • It is one of the most
important aspects of
one’s cognitive
behaviour.
• It involves number of
psychological activities
such as recollection,
imagination, perception
etc.
• It is not a simple
process.
3.
4.
5. The definition of thinking:
•Thinking is mental activity in its cognitive
aspect or mental activity with regard to
psychological objects. (Ross)
• thinking is a problem solving process in
which we use ideas or symbols in place of
overt activity. (Gilmer)
6. Nature of Thinking
• It is essentially a cognitive activity.
• It is always goal directed.
• It is a problem solving behaviour.
• It is related to inner cognitive behaviour.
• There is mental exploration instead of motor
exploration.
• Thinking is symbolic; it cannot be observed
but results can be seen.
7. Types of Thinking
• Perceptual or Concrete thinking.
• Conceptual or Abstract thinking.
• Convergent thinking.
• Divergent thinking.
• Reflective thinking.
• Creative thinking.
• Critical Thinking.
• Non directed/ associated thinking.
8. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking
• It is the simplest form of thinking.
• The basis of this thinking is a perception.
• This type of thinking is also called as concrete
thinking as it is carried out over the perception
of actual or concrete objects and events.
9. Conceptual or Abstract thinking
• It does not require the perception of actual
objects or events.
• It is a type of thinking where we make use of
concepts and ideas.
• This type of thinking is regarded as superior to
perceptual thinking as it leads to discovery and
inventions.
• Abstract: existing in thought or as an idea
but not having a physical or concrete
existence.
10. Convergent Thinking
• It is a closed single point thinking.
• This follows the principle of convergence
where the sun rays can be made to converge to
a single point using a lens.
• This type of thinking is involved in
situations which require the production of
only one correct solution or answer for a
problem. Eg. Answering MCQs.
11. Divergent Thinking
• It is a open point thinking.
• It promotes making multiple solutions for a
problem.
• It is a broad scanning operation enabling the
individual to make multiple possible solutions.
• This is used for creativity and inventions.
12. Reflective Thinking
• It is higher for of thinking.
• It aims at solving complex problems rather
than simple ones.
• It requires re organisation of all the relevant
experiences and finding new ways of reacting
to a situation or removing an obstacle.
• There is an insightful cognitive approach in
reflective thinking.
• It considers logic into account where relevant
facts are arranged in logical manner before
reaching to conclusion.
• It requires time but results are better.
13. Creative Thinking
• This is aimed to create something new.
• It is in search of new relationship and
associations to describe and interpret the
nature of the things, events, and situations.
• It helps in creativity and discovery/invention.
• A creative thinker is always influenced by
Versatile idea, originality, flexibility, divergent
thinking, self confidence and persistence, vision
and build relationship.
14. Critical Thinking
• A type of thing that helps a person to step aside
from his own personal belief, prejudices, and
opinions to sort out the facts and discover the
truth, even at the cost of his basic belief system.
• Higher cognitive process which requires
proper interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and
inference and explanation.
• It helps in meeting challenging problem of life
and profession.
16. Gathering knowledge (Level I)
• It consists of acquiring basic pieces of
information. Asking children to identify and
describe objects encourages thinking on this
level.
• At this level thinking is found to operate at a
very concrete level of knowledge.
• Knowing about something, being able to recall
from memory specific facts and figures.
17. Comprehending and confirming (Level II)
• It involves looking at the meaning of the
knowledge that has been gathered and drawing
conclusions from it.
• Understand the literal meaning of that
something which falls in the boundary wall of
knowing.
• We conform the ideas by comparing or
contrasting in own methodologies.
18. Applying (Level III)
• It entails using what has been learned in new
situations.
• Asking children to consider a newly learned fact
as they make something can foster this level of
thinking.
• It includes demonstration of a knowledge.
• Making attempt to try and understand the learned
knowledge in different similar situations.
19. Analyzing (Level IV)
• It involves thinking about a whole in terms of its various
parts. Breaking something into parts, using logics, cause
and effect relationship, comparing and contrasting,
recognizing pattern.
• As a result classification, categorization, and
discrimination occurs.
• You can encourage this level of thinking by asking
children what materials could be used for a particular
classroom project.
20. SynthesizingSynthesizing (Level V)(Level V)
• It consists of putting parts together to form a whole.
• We often observe ideas put together to shape
something new, propose plans, suggesting solutions,
and create new information.
• It includes the formation of theories and tests them.
• Asking children how to use an array of materials to
create something, for example, invites thinking on
this level.
21. EvaluatingEvaluating (Level VI)(Level VI)
• Highest level of thinking.
• It entails making comparisons and judgments.
• It is the ability of evaluation and judgements about a
particular idea, its application and suitability.
• A person at this level defend his work effectively.
• You can encourage this level of thinking by asking
children which of the materials they used worked the
best.
22. Development of Thinking
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
•It is a comprehensive theory about the nature and
development of human intelligence and thinking.
•It was first created by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget.
•The theory deals with the nature of knowledge itself and how
humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use it.
•To Piaget, cognitive development is a progressive
reorganization of mental processes resulting from biological
maturation and environmental experience.
•He believed that children construct an understanding of the
world around them, experience discrepancies between what
they already know and what they discover in their
environment, then adjust their ideas accordingly.
23. Development of Thinking
Through a series of stages, Piaget proposed four stages of
cognitive development:
•Sensory-motor (from birth to two years)
•Preoperational (about 2 to 7 years)
•Concrete operational (about 7 to 11 years)
•formal operational period (about 11 to 15 years).
24. Sensory-motor (from birth to two years)
• In this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge
and understanding of the world by coordinating
experiences (such as vision and hearing) with physical
interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking,
and stepping).
• Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical
actions they perform within it.
• They progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth
to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of
the stage.
• They can think about aspects of the environment, even
though these may be outside the reach of the child's
senses.
25. Sensory-motor (from birth to two years)
• In this stage, according to Piaget, the development of object
permanence is one of the most important accomplishments.
• Object permanence is a child's understanding that objects
continue to exist even though he or she cannot see or hear
them. Hide and seek is a good test for that. By the end of
the sensory motor period, children develop a permanent
sense of self and object.
26. Pre Operational Stage
• Piaget's second stage, the pre-operational stage, starts
when the child begins to learn to speak at age two and
lasts up until the age of seven.
• Children's increase in playing and pretending takes
place in this stage. However, the child still has trouble
seeing things from different points of view.
• The children's play is mainly categorized by symbolic
play and manipulating symbols. Such play is
demonstrated by the idea of checkers being snacks,
pieces of paper being plates, and a box being a table.
• The child, however, is still not able to perform
operations, which are tasks that the child can do
mentally, rather than physically.
27. Pre Operational Stage
• Thinking in this stage is still egocentric, meaning the
child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of others. The
Pre-operational Stage is split into two sub stages:
• The Pre conceptual stage: identify objects by different
name and classify them as mummy, pappa, Chichu etc.
It may not be exact figures. They consider all big
animal as one category as they are big. They are unable
to distinguish between living and non living objects.
• The intuitive Phase: The intuitive thought sub stage is
when children tend to propose the questions of "why?"
and "how come?" This stage is when children want the
knowledge of knowing everything.
29. Concrete Operational Stage
• It is characterized by the appropriate use of logic.
• They start solving problems in a more logical fashion.
• Abstract, hypothetical thinking is not yet developed in
the child, and children can only solve problems that
apply to concrete events or objects.
• At this stage, the children undergo a transition where
the child learns rules such as conservation.
• Piaget determined that children are able to incorporate
Inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves
drawing inferences from observations in order to make
a generalization. In contrast, children struggle with
deductive reasoning, which involves using a
generalized principle in order to try to predict the
outcome of an event.
30. Concrete Operational Stage
• Children in this stage commonly experience difficulties
with figuring out logic in their heads. For example, a
child will understand that "A is more than B" and "B is
more than C". However, when asked "is A more than
C?", the child might not be able to logically figure the
question out in his or her head.
• Loss of Egocentrism. Egocentrism is the inability to
consider or understand a perspective other than one's
own. It is the phase where the thought and morality of
the child is completely self focused.
• During this stage, the child acquires the ability to view
things from another individual's perspective, even if
they think that perspective is incorrect.
32. Formal Operational Stage
• The final stage is known as the formal operational
stage (adolescence and into adulthood, roughly ages 11
to approximately 15-20):
• Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of
symbols related to abstract concepts. This form of
thought includes "assumptions that have no necessary
relation to reality."
• At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and
deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop
the ability to think about abstract concepts.
• Piaget stated that "hypothetico-deductive reasoning"
becomes important during the formal operational stage.
It is often required in science and mathematics.
33. Formal Operational Stage
• Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational
stage. Children tend to think very concretely and
specifically in earlier stages, and begin to consider
possible outcomes and consequences of actions.
• Metacognition, the capacity for "thinking about
thinking" that allows adolescents and adults to reason
about their thought processes and monitor them.
• Problem-solving is demonstrated when children use
trial-and-error to solve problems. The ability to
systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges.
35. Communication & Language: In Thinking.
• Thinking is the main thing that distinguishes between
humans and animals.
• Humans may think because human whereas animals do
not have the language.
• Animal language is an instinct that does not need to be
studied and taught, while human language is the result
of culture that must be learned and taught.
• With language, humans can give names to everything,
whether visible or invisible. All objects, jobs, and
others abstract, is named.
• That way, everything that has ever observed and
experienced can be saved, be responses and
experiences, then processed (think) into insights.
36. Communication & Language: In Thinking.
• Communication provides a network for mutual
exchange or sharing of ideas, beliefs and thoughts.
• It may be verbal (words and language) or nonverbal
(facial expression, eye movements, tone of voice, body
language) or any other form of communication.
• The thinking can be processed and expressed only with
the help of language and communication.
• Language paves proper social interaction.
• Language helps in comprehension.
• Reading makes a full man and writing makes an exact
man: Proverb.
37. Alteration in Thinking.
• The direction of ones thinking in a proper and desirable
way is many times altered on account of one or other
factors affecting the thought process.
• The alterations may be classified as
a. Irrational thinking: Having no rational, reason or
cause underlying such thinking.
b. Illogical thinking: having no logics.
c. Improper thinking: No fruitful result and no desirable
communication output.
d. Non directed/aimless thinking: thinking without aim
such as day dreaming, fantasy, delusions, free
associations.
38. • Day dreaming, fantasy, delusions, free associations all
fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour that helps
an individual to escape from the demands of the real
world.
• the first three are not much harmful though there is
positive and negative consequences but delusions are
abnormality.
• Delusion are persistent false thoughts which is
irrational to the physical, social and psychological
aspects of the person.
39. Reasons for Alteration in Thinking.
• One may flow in the current of the emotions like, fear,
anger, distress, love, affection, etc which could not be
fulfilled.
• Thinking also may be paralyzed through suggestions
and advice from elders, peers (high expectation.)
• Superstitions (Hanging lemon and 7 green chilies, If a
black cat crosses your path, it's a bad omen, Breaking
mirror brings bad luck, Twitching of the eye is
inauspicious, Removing evil eye (Nazar Utaarna),
Adding one rupee to a gift sum)and irrational cultural
norms/traditions.
• Increased self centeredness.
• Improper defense mechanisms.
40. Reasons for Alteration in Thinking.
• Defence mechanisms are helpful and healthy if used in
a proper manner.
• However, if misused or overused, the same defence
mechanisms may also be unhealthy.
• Maladaptive use of defence mechanisms can occur in a
variety of cases, for example when they become
automatic and prevent individuals from realizing their
true feelings and thoughts.