Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children progress through 4 stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In the sensorimotor stage from birth to age 2, children learn about the world through senses and motor skills without using symbols. From ages 2 to 7, the preoperational stage is characterized by egocentric thought and learning of language and symbols. During concrete operations from ages 7 to 11, children can think logically about concrete events and classify objects. In formal operations from age 12 onward, abstract and hypothetical thinking emerges along with scientific reasoning skills.
Learning
Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process.
The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors.
Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured.
Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early twentieth century. While behavioral approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response.
How Classical Conditioning Works
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.
Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increases in behaviors where punishment would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement.
How Operant Conditioning Works
Observational Learning
Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.As demonstrated in his classic "Bobo Doll" experiments, people will imitate the actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational
Learning
Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process.
The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors.
Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured.
Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early twentieth century. While behavioral approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response.
How Classical Conditioning Works
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.
Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increases in behaviors where punishment would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement.
How Operant Conditioning Works
Observational Learning
Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.As demonstrated in his classic "Bobo Doll" experiments, people will imitate the actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
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QA Paediatric dentistry department, Hospital Melaka 2020Azreen Aj
QA study - To improve the 6th monthly recall rate post-comprehensive dental treatment under general anaesthesia in paediatric dentistry department, Hospital Melaka
One of the most developed cities of India, the city of Chennai is the capital of Tamilnadu and many people from different parts of India come here to earn their bread and butter. Being a metropolitan, the city is filled with towering building and beaches but the sad part as with almost every Indian city
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Navigating the Health Insurance Market_ Understanding Trends and Options.pdfEnterprise Wired
From navigating policy options to staying informed about industry trends, this comprehensive guide explores everything you need to know about the health insurance market.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
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Antibiotic Stewardship by Anushri Srivastava.pptxAnushriSrivastav
Stewardship is the act of taking good care of something.
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
WHO launched the Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) in 2015 to fill knowledge gaps and inform strategies at all levels.
ACCORDING TO apic.org,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a coordinated program that promotes the appropriate use of antimicrobials (including antibiotics), improves patient outcomes, reduces microbial resistance, and decreases the spread of infections caused by multidrug-resistant organisms.
ACCORDING TO pewtrusts.org,
Antibiotic stewardship refers to efforts in doctors’ offices, hospitals, long term care facilities, and other health care settings to ensure that antibiotics are used only when necessary and appropriate
According to WHO,
Antimicrobial stewardship is a systematic approach to educate and support health care professionals to follow evidence-based guidelines for prescribing and administering antimicrobials
In 1996, John McGowan and Dale Gerding first applied the term antimicrobial stewardship, where they suggested a causal association between antimicrobial agent use and resistance. They also focused on the urgency of large-scale controlled trials of antimicrobial-use regulation employing sophisticated epidemiologic methods, molecular typing, and precise resistance mechanism analysis.
Antimicrobial Stewardship(AMS) refers to the optimal selection, dosing, and duration of antimicrobial treatment resulting in the best clinical outcome with minimal side effects to the patients and minimal impact on subsequent resistance.
According to the 2019 report, in the US, more than 2.8 million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year, and more than 35000 people die. In addition to this, it also mentioned that 223,900 cases of Clostridoides difficile occurred in 2017, of which 12800 people died. The report did not include viruses or parasites
VISION
Being proactive
Supporting optimal animal and human health
Exploring ways to reduce overall use of antimicrobials
Using the drugs that prevent and treat disease by killing microscopic organisms in a responsible way
GOAL
to prevent the generation and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Doing so will preserve the effectiveness of these drugs in animals and humans for years to come.
being to preserve human and animal health and the effectiveness of antimicrobial medications.
to implement a multidisciplinary approach in assembling a stewardship team to include an infectious disease physician, a clinical pharmacist with infectious diseases training, infection preventionist, and a close collaboration with the staff in the clinical microbiology laboratory
to prevent antimicrobial overuse, misuse and abuse.
to minimize the developme
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
2. Many theories have been devised to
study the development of children
• Intellectual development: Jean Piaget
• Moral development: Jean Piaget and Lawrence
Kohlberg
• Emotional development: Erik H Erikson
• Psychosexual development: Sigmund Freud
• Spiritual development: James W Fowler
6. Introduction
• Children are born with inherited potentialities for
thorough intellectual growth.
• Development of potential occurs through
interaction with environment.
• The age related changes in mental activities are
called “cognitive development”.
• The term “cognition” means “understanding”.
7. Contd….Introduction
• It refers to mental development that includes not
only intelligence but also complementary
processes as perceiving, recognizing, recalling and
interpreting information as well as all forms of
reasoning.
• According to him, thinking of normal child is not
a simpler version of thinking of adults.
8. • Thinking is based on different understanding of
reality.
• It slowly changes according to maturation and
experiences.
• According to Piaget, children proceed through the
stages of mental activity in an orderly and sequential
manner.
• Children learn through assimilation and
accommodation
9. The sequences of cognitive changes are divided into
4 periods according to chronological age, as:
Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years)
Pre- operational thought ( 2 to 6 years)
Concrete operations (6 to 12 years)
Formal operations (12 to 15+ years)
10. Concept – Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
• According to Piaget, the baby is in the
sensorimotor stage between birth to 2 years.
• During the sensorimotor stage, the child
understands his world through sensory organs and
through his motor abilities.
11. Contd…Concept
• Piaget believed intellectual growth followed an
orderly progression based on the child’s
maturational level, experiences with physical
objects, interactions with caregivers, other adults
and peer.
12. SENSORIMOTOR (Birth to 2 years)
• At the beginning of his/ her life, the child is
concerned only with satisfying basic needs and
comforts.
• As the sense of differentiation occurs, with
increasing mobility and awareness, the mental
system is expanded.
13. Contd….Introduction
• The child develops a greater understanding
regarding objects within external environment
and their effects upon him/her.
• Knowledge is gained regarding the ability to
manipulate objects and experiences within the
environment
14. Three important events takes place during
the sensorimotor stage:
1. Separating of the infant’s self from other persons,
such as the mother or objects in the environment.
2. Perceiving the concept of object permanency or
constancy – that people and things continue to
exist even though they cannot be seen.
3. Using symbol to think of a situation or an object,
such as toy, without its being present in the
immediate environment.
15. II. Pre- operational thought
(2 to 6 years)
• The representational abilities become more
sophisticated and capable to communicate their
needs with language.
• They become social beings but child does not
understand the use of symbols and basic
operations hence the name pre- operational stage.
16. • The baby is only capable of making concept of a
single object and not a class of objects.
• The child views every object or situation as single
instances and will not understand the
dimensionality of objects.
• The child cannot think in terms of operations.
• Pre – conceptual thought is extremely concrete
and egocentric (child’s persistent self- centredness)
17. • Egocentrism is a major hindrance to cognitive
development.
• With egocentrism, the child is unaware of others
perspectives.
• The pre – schooler do not realize that other people
see things from a different view point..
18. Intuitive phase (4 to 7 years)
• Egocentric thought begins to give away to social
pressure and the child beings to accommodate
others (cognitive egocentrism).
• The pre-schooler’s thinking is static and focus at
one feature at a time. They are unable to combine
various features of an object. This is centration.
• Child is unable to decentre and his perceptual
evaluation is not developed.
19. • Piaget also used the transductive reasoning (a child
proceeds from particular to particular centring on
one salient aspects of an event and ignoring other
aspects.)
There are two forms of transductive thinking ;
namely – juxtaposition and syncretism.
• In juxtaposition, he described indiscriminate
relationship
• In syncretism, the child fails to relate various
observations into a consistent.
20. • At this stage, the children group items with
similarity
• From 2 to 4 years, the child lacks speech and the
egocentric speech which the child repeatedly uses
in his communication with others.
• With age 4 to 6 years, language becomes socialized
speech (you, she , he ) are added in conversations
21. • The child exchanges ideas with other persons,
which helps in socialization process.
• There is beginning of thoughts and the child
thinks internally by using words and signs.
• There is internalization of action and actions
become more symbolic rather than perceptual
motor
22. Common forms of imaginary experiences
in childhood are:
• Day dreaming Exaggeration
• Imaginary friends Dreams
• Imaginary illness Creativity
• Animism
23. • Ordering / Seriation: School age children are able
to arrange things or concrete objects according to their
size and relationships to other things. Ordering allows
them to solve an abstract problem when it deals with
concrete objects.
• Classification: Children are increasingly able to
classify objects in a more computer manner than they
could during the pre-school years
24. • Thinking and Reasoning: They can solve problems
because they can manipulate symbols. Their mental
ability permits them to carry on converse and reverse
processes. School children can think problems through,
a new world of logical operations opens before them.
• Time: During the school age period, children think not
only of the present but also of the past and future
• Egocentrism decreases, the ability to cooperate in
interactions with other children increases, and
understanding and acceptance of established rules
grow.
25. IV. Formal operations (12 to 15+ years)
• At this stage, the individuals is able to think and
reason in abstract terms.
• Individuals can solve problems that require purely
abstract thinking in a flexible manner.
• He/ she can make and test hypothesis using logical
and orderly problem solving.
26. • Adolescents can utilize “Hypothetical deductive
reasoning”, they may reject authority if they are not
satisfied with the rationale and logic.
• Current situations and reflections of the future are
idealized and a degree of egocentrism returns
during this stage
• Formal operations, however, enables the individual
to distinguish between the real and the ideal
27. Reference / Bibliography
Sharma Rimple- “Essentials of Pediatric Nursing for BSc.
and P.BSc. Nursing students”; 1st edition; Jaypeee Brothers
Medical Publishers (P) Ltd; page no:68-70
• Yadav Manoj –“ A textbook of Child Health Nursing and
Procedure”; 1st edition; S.Vikas and Company (Medical
Publish); page no: 126-128
• Clement I-“ Psychosocial Foundation of Nursing”; 1st edition;
Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) ltd; page no:89-95
• T.M Assuma Devi – “Textbook of Pediatric Nursing”; 1st
edition ;Reed Elsevier India Pvt Limited; page no: 65-68
• Townsend Mary C-“ Psychiatric Mental Health Nursing”; 7th
edition; Jaypee Brothers Medical Publisher (P).ltd; Page no:
33-41
• Marlow Dorothy R and Redding Barbara A – “Marlow’s
Textbook of Pediatric Nursing”; 1st edition; Reed Elsevier
India Pvt Limited; Page no:110 – 111
