Unit 2 relief
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The document discusses the topic of relief and how it shapes the Earth's landscapes. It covers the following key points: 1) The Earth is made of magma and has ocean relief and changing landscapes due to erosion and sedimentation from water, ice, and wind. 2) Continental drift and plate tectonics explain how the continents have moved over time, as evidenced by similar fossils found around different continents that were once joined in the supercontinent Pangaea. 3) Relief shapes the planet through faults, folds, volcanoes, earthquakes, and tectonic plates interacting to form new geological features through phenomena like seismic activity and mountain building.
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Unit 2 - the earth's relief
The document discusses the theory of continental drift proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It explains that continents have been drifting for hundreds of millions of years, as evidenced by matching continental shapes and matching plant and animal fossils found around different continents. It describes Pangaea, the supercontinent that existed 300 million years ago before breaking apart. Tectonic plates and processes like erosion, transportation, and deposition shape the Earth's relief over time. External forces like temperature, water, wind and human activity also change relief through erosion, sedimentation, and the formation of features like canyons, deltas, cliffs, and sand dunes.
Unit 7, Earth internal energy and relief, 2ESO
This document discusses three types of lithospheric plate boundaries: convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and transform fault boundaries. It provides details about each:
- Convergent boundaries occur when two plates move toward each other, with one plate sinking into the mantle as the other is pushed up to form mountains. Volcanic activity results from melting of the sinking plate.
- Divergent boundaries coincide with oceanic ridges, where rifts form and molten material rises to create new lithosphere, causing the plates to grow in size.
- Transform fault boundaries happen when two plates slide past each other parallel in opposite directions, destroying or creating no new lithosphere so plate sizes remain the same. They
Modelling of the land relief
This document summarizes the processes of modeling land relief through meteorization, erosion, transport, and sedimentation by various geological agents. It describes 3 parts of the Earth's structure and the rock and sedimentary cycles. Various geological agents like wind, glaciers, streams, rivers, groundwater and sea are described in terms of their meteorization, erosion, transport and sedimentation processes to form landscapes. Specific landforms produced by fluvial and aeolian (wind) processes are also outlined, including badlands, fairy chimneys, dunes, loess deposits, meanders, deltas, estuaries and terraces.
Landform characterization through satellite image
This document discusses different types of landforms created by various geological processes. It describes fluvial landforms such as channels, deltas, and floodplains which are created by rivers and streams. Aeolian landforms like dunes and yardangs are formed by wind erosion, especially in desert environments. Glacial landforms include valleys, moraines, and eskers that are shaped by the movement of glaciers. Finally, marine landforms like barrier islands, deltas, and sea caves occur where ocean waves interact with coastlines. The document provides examples and images to illustrate different landforms around the world.
Changing Earth.
The document defines key terms related to the Earth's crust including weathering, erosion, continental drift, plate tectonics, and climate change. Weathering is the decomposition of rocks and minerals through contact with the atmosphere. Erosion is the movement of solids like soil and rock by forces such as wind, water, or ice via gravity or organisms. Continental drift is the movement of continents relative to each other, while plate tectonics describes the motions of tectonic plates that encompass concepts like continental drift and seafloor spreading. Climate change refers to long-term changes in average weather patterns like temperature, precipitation, or wind in a region.
Unit2.the earth'srelief(updated)
The document discusses the internal and external forces that shape the Earth's relief. Internally, tectonic plates move slowly over time, pushing the crust upwards to form folds or causing it to crack and form faults. Externally, agents like water, wind, temperature changes, and living things modify relief through erosion, transportation, and deposition of materials. Water plays a particularly important role in shaping landscapes through processes like river flow. Relief is constantly changing due to these combined internal and external forces.
Aeolian processes and landforms
Wind has the ability to shape the surface of the Earth. Wind is one of the greatest agents of land erosion and transportation. The action of wind is very significant in arid and semi-arid regions. Due to profound wetness, wind cannot act in humid regions. Wind is capable of eroding, transporting and depositing the surface materials, in drylands. The landforms created by wind action are called as Aeolian landforms. The word “Aeolian” is derived from the Greek word “Aeolus”, meaning, the god of the winds.
Relief orders
This document discusses relief orders, which classify landforms based on their size and origin. First order relief features are the largest tectonic plates. Second order relief is formed by plate collisions and divergences, creating features like mountain ranges and rift valleys. Third order relief results from erosion and deposition acting on plate boundaries, and includes individual landforms of any size shaped by processes like weathering, running water, glaciers, and more. Classification of relief orders helps understand how different geological forces sculpt Earth's surface features across varying scales.
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Unit 2 - the earth's relief
The document discusses the theory of continental drift proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It explains that continents have been drifting for hundreds of millions of years, as evidenced by matching continental shapes and matching plant and animal fossils found around different continents. It describes Pangaea, the supercontinent that existed 300 million years ago before breaking apart. Tectonic plates and processes like erosion, transportation, and deposition shape the Earth's relief over time. External forces like temperature, water, wind and human activity also change relief through erosion, sedimentation, and the formation of features like canyons, deltas, cliffs, and sand dunes.
Unit 7, Earth internal energy and relief, 2ESO
This document discusses three types of lithospheric plate boundaries: convergent boundaries, divergent boundaries, and transform fault boundaries. It provides details about each:
- Convergent boundaries occur when two plates move toward each other, with one plate sinking into the mantle as the other is pushed up to form mountains. Volcanic activity results from melting of the sinking plate.
- Divergent boundaries coincide with oceanic ridges, where rifts form and molten material rises to create new lithosphere, causing the plates to grow in size.
- Transform fault boundaries happen when two plates slide past each other parallel in opposite directions, destroying or creating no new lithosphere so plate sizes remain the same. They
Modelling of the land relief
This document summarizes the processes of modeling land relief through meteorization, erosion, transport, and sedimentation by various geological agents. It describes 3 parts of the Earth's structure and the rock and sedimentary cycles. Various geological agents like wind, glaciers, streams, rivers, groundwater and sea are described in terms of their meteorization, erosion, transport and sedimentation processes to form landscapes. Specific landforms produced by fluvial and aeolian (wind) processes are also outlined, including badlands, fairy chimneys, dunes, loess deposits, meanders, deltas, estuaries and terraces.
Landform characterization through satellite image
This document discusses different types of landforms created by various geological processes. It describes fluvial landforms such as channels, deltas, and floodplains which are created by rivers and streams. Aeolian landforms like dunes and yardangs are formed by wind erosion, especially in desert environments. Glacial landforms include valleys, moraines, and eskers that are shaped by the movement of glaciers. Finally, marine landforms like barrier islands, deltas, and sea caves occur where ocean waves interact with coastlines. The document provides examples and images to illustrate different landforms around the world.
Changing Earth.
The document defines key terms related to the Earth's crust including weathering, erosion, continental drift, plate tectonics, and climate change. Weathering is the decomposition of rocks and minerals through contact with the atmosphere. Erosion is the movement of solids like soil and rock by forces such as wind, water, or ice via gravity or organisms. Continental drift is the movement of continents relative to each other, while plate tectonics describes the motions of tectonic plates that encompass concepts like continental drift and seafloor spreading. Climate change refers to long-term changes in average weather patterns like temperature, precipitation, or wind in a region.
Unit2.the earth'srelief(updated)
The document discusses the internal and external forces that shape the Earth's relief. Internally, tectonic plates move slowly over time, pushing the crust upwards to form folds or causing it to crack and form faults. Externally, agents like water, wind, temperature changes, and living things modify relief through erosion, transportation, and deposition of materials. Water plays a particularly important role in shaping landscapes through processes like river flow. Relief is constantly changing due to these combined internal and external forces.
Aeolian processes and landforms
Wind has the ability to shape the surface of the Earth. Wind is one of the greatest agents of land erosion and transportation. The action of wind is very significant in arid and semi-arid regions. Due to profound wetness, wind cannot act in humid regions. Wind is capable of eroding, transporting and depositing the surface materials, in drylands. The landforms created by wind action are called as Aeolian landforms. The word “Aeolian” is derived from the Greek word “Aeolus”, meaning, the god of the winds.
Relief orders
This document discusses relief orders, which classify landforms based on their size and origin. First order relief features are the largest tectonic plates. Second order relief is formed by plate collisions and divergences, creating features like mountain ranges and rift valleys. Third order relief results from erosion and deposition acting on plate boundaries, and includes individual landforms of any size shaped by processes like weathering, running water, glaciers, and more. Classification of relief orders helps understand how different geological forces sculpt Earth's surface features across varying scales.
The Earth’s Relief
The document discusses the structure and relief of the Earth. It describes how the Earth is divided into layers including the crust, mantle, and core. It explains how plate tectonics has shaped the Earth's geography over millions of years, including forming continents and oceans. Specifically, it notes that around 200 million years ago all the continents were joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, which has since broken apart due to plate movement.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND HISTORY OF GEOLOGY
The document discusses plate tectonics, the theory that the Earth's outer layer is made up of rigid plates that move over a softer layer below. It describes how plates are made of rigid lithosphere and move due to convection currents in the mantle. The theory helps explain geological features like mountain ranges and volcanoes. It also discusses related topics like the rock and water cycles, uniformitarianism, and the development of geology as a science over time.
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Mass movement and erosion reshape Earth's surface by transporting weathered materials downhill. Mass movement includes landslides, creep, slumps, earthflows, and mudflows. Climate affects erosion rates - humid regions experience more water erosion, resulting in rounded topography, while dry areas have sharper features. Studying past lahar deposits can help prevent future damage from lahars in communities near volcanoes. Gravity causes downhill movement of material, while friction opposes gravity and holds rocks in place on slopes.
Ppt of geomorphology
Pangaea was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras. The continents were joined together before breaking apart and drifting to their current positions due to plate tectonic forces. Pangaea was surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa and contained the continental masses of Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. Wegener's continental drift theory explains how plate tectonics causes the continents to shift and change position over geologic time, resulting in the fragmentation of Pangaea and the gradual drifting of landmasses to their present locations.
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Lithosphere (1)
1) Scientists have learned about Earth's interior structure indirectly through seismic waves and directly from rock samples from mining and drilling. This evidence shows that temperature, pressure, and density all increase towards the center.
2) Earth is divided into layers - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust and upper mantle make up the lithosphere which forms tectonic plates. Below this is the asthenosphere which is ductile and allows plate movement.
3) The core is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core. Studying seismic waves revealed the liquid outer core through a "shadow zone" where no S-waves were detected.
UNIT 2 EARTH'S INTERNAL ENERGY
The document discusses concepts related to plate tectonics and the Earth's internal structure and processes. It defines key terms like crust, lithospheric plates, volcanoes, earthquakes, and plate boundary types. It also summarizes Alfred Wegener's evidence for continental drift theory. Specifically, it notes he provided evidence that continents fit together like puzzle pieces, that similar geological formations are found far apart, and that fossil distributions also indicate continents have moved. It also asks questions to help explain plate tectonics concepts like the causes of internal activity and how convection currents form due to heat rising and cooling.
Fundamental concepts of geomorphology
This document outlines 9 fundamental concepts in geomorphology. It introduces geomorphology as the description and interpretation of earth's landforms. Some key concepts discussed are:
- The principle of uniformitarianism, which states that geological processes have operated consistently over time, though intensities may have varied.
- Geological structure strongly influences landform evolution and is reflected in topography.
- Individual geomorphic processes leave distinctive imprints and develop characteristic landform assemblages.
- Landforms develop through successive stages as erosional processes act on the earth's surface over time.
- Most of the world's topography developed during the Pleistocene and is influenced by past geological and climatic changes.
Wilson cycle
Opening and closing of the ocean basin is known as Wilson cycle.
Source discription_ K.C. Condie.
Earthscience..
The document summarizes information about the solid earth. It describes how the earth formed 4.6 billion years ago from a cloud of dust and gas. It then discusses the three main layers of the earth: the crust, mantle, and core. It also defines minerals and rocks, describing the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Finally, it briefly touches on other geological concepts like diastrophism, volcanism, and earthquakes.
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New Zealand's landscapes were formed by plate tectonic processes and erosion over time. The country sits where the Pacific and Australian plates meet, causing volcanism, faulting, and folding that uplifted mountain ranges like the Southern Alps. Erosion by weathering and transportation has further sculpted the land, wearing down uplifted areas through processes like fluvial erosion by rivers and glacial erosion.
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This document discusses the concept of uniformitarianism in geology. It provides:
1) A definition of uniformitarianism as the doctrine that geological processes acted in the same manner in the past as they do today.
2) A brief history of the development of uniformitarianism from James Hutton in 1785 to its popularization by Charles Lyell.
3) Key principles of uniformitarianism, including that geological processes occurred gradually over long periods of time rather than through catastrophic events, and that the present state of the Earth provides insight into its past.
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The lithospheric plates slowly move due to movement of magma inside the Earth, causing changes on the surface. During an earthquake, safe spots are under sturdy furniture away from fireplaces, windows and falling objects. People should spread awareness about earthquake preparedness among friends and family. A 1999 earthquake in Bhuj, India measured 6.9 on the Richter scale.
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- A morphogenetic region is a region where the dominant geomorphic processes, under certain climatic conditions, contribute to distinctive landscape characteristics that contrast with other regions formed under different climates.
- The concept is based on the idea that each climate produces characteristic landforms through its influence on processes like weathering, erosion, and runoff.
- Morphogenetic regions are defined by identifying major climatic/zoogeographical regions and the diagnostic landforms within them that reflect the dominant geomorphic processes operating under those particular climatic conditions.
What is Topography
This document provides an overview of the early history and development of the theory of plate tectonics. It discusses how early maps from Eratosthenes and Crates began to document topography and elevation patterns on Earth. In the late 1800s, scientists like Alexander von Humboldt, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, and Edward Seuss began recognizing patterns in the shapes and fossil records of continents that suggested they were once joined together. In the early 1900s, scientists like Frank Taylor and Alfred Wegener proposed the first hypotheses of continental drift to explain these patterns, though Wegener's ideas faced skepticism at the time due to the unknown forces driving plate motions.
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It will help to students who study bio geography and relevant subjects , this is a project what we have done in our university and now i m publishing this for your references. in this presentation we describe of disturbance types and how it was worked , unfortunately we are not able to upload the containing video to this presentation if you need it just you will able to get it from you tube by searching plate tectonics mechanism , study well and best of luck !!!!!!!
Topography
Topography is the study of the configuration of a surface, including its relief and natural and man-made features. It aims to determine the position, latitude, longitude, and altitude of features through direct survey techniques or remote sensing. Topographic data can take raw survey data, remote sensing data, topographic mapping, or digital elevation modeling forms. Key topographic landforms include mountains, hills, valleys, plains, plateaus, and bodies of water like streams, rivers, lakes, and waterfalls.
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1. Plate tectonics theory states that the Earth's crust is made up of plates that move over the mantle due to convection currents. As plates move away from mid-ocean ridges, they cool and become denser.
2. At convergent plate boundaries, one plate subducts under the other into the mantle at deep ocean trenches. This causes volcanism and creates island arcs at the surface.
3. Mountain building occurs at plate boundaries, such as the Himalayas formed by the collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates, and the Andes formed at the boundary between the oceanic Nazca Plate and continental South American Plate. Folding and faulting create the mountains.
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The hydrosphere refers to all the water on, under, and over the surface of a planet, including the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ice caps, groundwater, and atmospheric water vapor. It makes up about 1% of Earth's total mass and covers about 70% of Earth's surface. The hydrosphere is always in motion through various processes of the water cycle, with water circulating between the oceans, atmosphere, and land through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Water pollution from human and natural sources threatens the hydrosphere by contaminating water bodies.
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Geografía: La escala
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The Earth’s Relief
The document discusses the structure and relief of the Earth. It describes how the Earth is divided into layers including the crust, mantle, and core. It explains how plate tectonics has shaped the Earth's geography over millions of years, including forming continents and oceans. Specifically, it notes that around 200 million years ago all the continents were joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, which has since broken apart due to plate movement.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES AND HISTORY OF GEOLOGY
The document discusses plate tectonics, the theory that the Earth's outer layer is made up of rigid plates that move over a softer layer below. It describes how plates are made of rigid lithosphere and move due to convection currents in the mantle. The theory helps explain geological features like mountain ranges and volcanoes. It also discusses related topics like the rock and water cycles, uniformitarianism, and the development of geology as a science over time.
12.3
Mass movement and erosion reshape Earth's surface by transporting weathered materials downhill. Mass movement includes landslides, creep, slumps, earthflows, and mudflows. Climate affects erosion rates - humid regions experience more water erosion, resulting in rounded topography, while dry areas have sharper features. Studying past lahar deposits can help prevent future damage from lahars in communities near volcanoes. Gravity causes downhill movement of material, while friction opposes gravity and holds rocks in place on slopes.
Ppt of geomorphology
Pangaea was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras. The continents were joined together before breaking apart and drifting to their current positions due to plate tectonic forces. Pangaea was surrounded by a global ocean called Panthalassa and contained the continental masses of Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. Wegener's continental drift theory explains how plate tectonics causes the continents to shift and change position over geologic time, resulting in the fragmentation of Pangaea and the gradual drifting of landmasses to their present locations.
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Simple review of the various "spheres" students learned in elementary school, hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, biosphere
Lithosphere (1)
1) Scientists have learned about Earth's interior structure indirectly through seismic waves and directly from rock samples from mining and drilling. This evidence shows that temperature, pressure, and density all increase towards the center.
2) Earth is divided into layers - the crust, mantle, and core. The crust and upper mantle make up the lithosphere which forms tectonic plates. Below this is the asthenosphere which is ductile and allows plate movement.
3) The core is divided into a solid inner core and liquid outer core. Studying seismic waves revealed the liquid outer core through a "shadow zone" where no S-waves were detected.
UNIT 2 EARTH'S INTERNAL ENERGY
The document discusses concepts related to plate tectonics and the Earth's internal structure and processes. It defines key terms like crust, lithospheric plates, volcanoes, earthquakes, and plate boundary types. It also summarizes Alfred Wegener's evidence for continental drift theory. Specifically, it notes he provided evidence that continents fit together like puzzle pieces, that similar geological formations are found far apart, and that fossil distributions also indicate continents have moved. It also asks questions to help explain plate tectonics concepts like the causes of internal activity and how convection currents form due to heat rising and cooling.
Fundamental concepts of geomorphology
This document outlines 9 fundamental concepts in geomorphology. It introduces geomorphology as the description and interpretation of earth's landforms. Some key concepts discussed are:
- The principle of uniformitarianism, which states that geological processes have operated consistently over time, though intensities may have varied.
- Geological structure strongly influences landform evolution and is reflected in topography.
- Individual geomorphic processes leave distinctive imprints and develop characteristic landform assemblages.
- Landforms develop through successive stages as erosional processes act on the earth's surface over time.
- Most of the world's topography developed during the Pleistocene and is influenced by past geological and climatic changes.
Wilson cycle
Opening and closing of the ocean basin is known as Wilson cycle.
Source discription_ K.C. Condie.
Earthscience..
The document summarizes information about the solid earth. It describes how the earth formed 4.6 billion years ago from a cloud of dust and gas. It then discusses the three main layers of the earth: the crust, mantle, and core. It also defines minerals and rocks, describing the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Finally, it briefly touches on other geological concepts like diastrophism, volcanism, and earthquakes.
New Zealand’S Natural Landscapes
New Zealand's landscapes were formed by plate tectonic processes and erosion over time. The country sits where the Pacific and Australian plates meet, causing volcanism, faulting, and folding that uplifted mountain ranges like the Southern Alps. Erosion by weathering and transportation has further sculpted the land, wearing down uplifted areas through processes like fluvial erosion by rivers and glacial erosion.
Final ppt uniformitarianism
This document discusses the concept of uniformitarianism in geology. It provides:
1) A definition of uniformitarianism as the doctrine that geological processes acted in the same manner in the past as they do today.
2) A brief history of the development of uniformitarianism from James Hutton in 1785 to its popularization by Charles Lyell.
3) Key principles of uniformitarianism, including that geological processes occurred gradually over long periods of time rather than through catastrophic events, and that the present state of the Earth provides insight into its past.
Slides on our changing earth
The lithospheric plates slowly move due to movement of magma inside the Earth, causing changes on the surface. During an earthquake, safe spots are under sturdy furniture away from fireplaces, windows and falling objects. People should spread awareness about earthquake preparedness among friends and family. A 1999 earthquake in Bhuj, India measured 6.9 on the Richter scale.
Morphogenetic region-Geomorhology Chapter
- A morphogenetic region is a region where the dominant geomorphic processes, under certain climatic conditions, contribute to distinctive landscape characteristics that contrast with other regions formed under different climates.
- The concept is based on the idea that each climate produces characteristic landforms through its influence on processes like weathering, erosion, and runoff.
- Morphogenetic regions are defined by identifying major climatic/zoogeographical regions and the diagnostic landforms within them that reflect the dominant geomorphic processes operating under those particular climatic conditions.
What is Topography
This document provides an overview of the early history and development of the theory of plate tectonics. It discusses how early maps from Eratosthenes and Crates began to document topography and elevation patterns on Earth. In the late 1800s, scientists like Alexander von Humboldt, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, and Edward Seuss began recognizing patterns in the shapes and fossil records of continents that suggested they were once joined together. In the early 1900s, scientists like Frank Taylor and Alfred Wegener proposed the first hypotheses of continental drift to explain these patterns, though Wegener's ideas faced skepticism at the time due to the unknown forces driving plate motions.
Role of the disturbance in shaping bio geography
It will help to students who study bio geography and relevant subjects , this is a project what we have done in our university and now i m publishing this for your references. in this presentation we describe of disturbance types and how it was worked , unfortunately we are not able to upload the containing video to this presentation if you need it just you will able to get it from you tube by searching plate tectonics mechanism , study well and best of luck !!!!!!!
Topography
Topography is the study of the configuration of a surface, including its relief and natural and man-made features. It aims to determine the position, latitude, longitude, and altitude of features through direct survey techniques or remote sensing. Topographic data can take raw survey data, remote sensing data, topographic mapping, or digital elevation modeling forms. Key topographic landforms include mountains, hills, valleys, plains, plateaus, and bodies of water like streams, rivers, lakes, and waterfalls.
AS GEOGRAPHY - ROCKS AND WEATHERING: ELEMENTARY PLATE TECTONICS
1. Plate tectonics theory states that the Earth's crust is made up of plates that move over the mantle due to convection currents. As plates move away from mid-ocean ridges, they cool and become denser.
2. At convergent plate boundaries, one plate subducts under the other into the mantle at deep ocean trenches. This causes volcanism and creates island arcs at the surface.
3. Mountain building occurs at plate boundaries, such as the Himalayas formed by the collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates, and the Andes formed at the boundary between the oceanic Nazca Plate and continental South American Plate. Folding and faulting create the mountains.
Hydrosphere Presentation
The hydrosphere refers to all the water on, under, and over the surface of a planet, including the oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ice caps, groundwater, and atmospheric water vapor. It makes up about 1% of Earth's total mass and covers about 70% of Earth's surface. The hydrosphere is always in motion through various processes of the water cycle, with water circulating between the oceans, atmosphere, and land through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Water pollution from human and natural sources threatens the hydrosphere by contaminating water bodies.
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AS GEOGRAPHY - ROCKS AND WEATHERING: ELEMENTARY PLATE TECTONICS
AS GEOGRAPHY - ROCKS AND WEATHERING: ELEMENTARY PLATE TECTONICS
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Para calcular distancias reales en un mapa, se debe medir la distancia en el mapa y multiplicarla por la escala. Para pasar de una distancia real a su representación en un mapa, se debe dividir entre la escala. La escala puede ser numérica o gráfica. Los mapas a gran escala (hasta 1:100,000) representan zonas pequeñas con gran detalle, mientras que los mapas a pequeña escala (más de 1:100,000) representan zonas más extensas con menos detalle.
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Continental drift is the hypothesis that the Earth's continents have moved over geologic time relative to each other. Plate tectonics studies the movement of continents on tectonic plates. There are three main types of tectonic plate boundaries: subduction zones where plates converge, divergent margins where plates spread apart, and transform margins where plates slide past each other. Seafloor spreading occurs at divergent boundaries as heat from the Earth's mantle causes the seafloor crust to crack and new crust is formed, pushing the plates apart over millions of years. The 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, measured at over 9.0 on the Richter scale, was caused by movement along the Sumatra fault line and
THE DYNAMIC-EARTH AND CONSEQUENCE
The document discusses theories of isostasy and plate tectonics. The theory of isostasy explains how mountains maintain their elevation despite erosion, through vertical movements that restore equilibrium as the crust adjusts to changes at the surface. Plate tectonic theory unified earlier concepts by proposing that the outer shell of the Earth is made of rigid plates that move due to convection currents, interacting at plate boundaries through divergence, convergence, or sliding. This causes geological phenomena like earthquakes, mountain building, and volcanic activity as plates adjust to maintain isostatic balance.
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This document discusses the theory of continental drift and plate tectonics. It explains that continental drift is the movement of continents across Earth's surface over geologic time. The theory was first proposed in the early 20th century by Alfred Wegener and helped explain the formation of supercontinents like Pangaea and the matching of continental margins. It also introduced the concept of plates and how their movement causes geologic phenomena like earthquakes and volcanoes.
Plate Tectonics 9
1) Earth's lithosphere is made up of tectonic plates that rest on the mantle and slowly move, dragging the plates along the surface.
2) There are three types of plate boundaries - divergent where plates move apart, convergent where plates collide, and transform where plates slide past each other horizontally.
3) Evidence like matching rock formations and fossils found on separated continents support Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift that all land was once part of a single supercontinent called Pangea that has drifted apart over time.
Guiding Principles of Geology
Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology that describes the lithosphere as rigid plates that move horizontally above the asthenosphere. Plates are made of rigid lithosphere composed of crust and upper mantle, and move due to convection currents in the mantle. As plates interact at boundaries, they cause deformation of the crust and form different landforms through divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries. The theory of seafloor spreading provided evidence that plates move by creating new crust at mid-ocean ridges and destroying crust at trenches.
Unit 2 relief and water on earth wiki
The document provides an overview of relief and water on Earth. It discusses the structure of the Earth and how tectonic plate movements have shaped the continents over hundreds of millions of years. It also describes the main types of continental and oceanic relief that have been formed through internal forces like earthquakes and volcanoes, as well as external forces like erosion. Finally, it examines the distribution of water on Earth, including the characteristics and movements of oceans, seas, and continental freshwater sources.
Steps to Plate TectonicsStep 1 – Continental Driftwww.mat.docx
Steps to Plate Tectonics:
Step 1 – Continental Drift
www.math.montana.edu / ~nmp / materials / ess / geosphere / inter / activities / plate_calc / pangaea_map.gif
The Continental Drift hypothesis published by Alfred Wegener in his 1915 book “ The Origin of Continents and Oceans”, although this was partially based on the work of earlier investigators.
Continental Drift = the continents were once connected in a single supercontinent called Pangaea. They have since drifted apart and are still moving today.
http://www.kidsgeo.com/geology-for-kids/0042-pangaea.php
Wegener’s hypothesis had several problems:
1) He had no power source – no way to make the continents move.
2) He thought the continents moved through the seafloor just like boats move through the ocean, but there was no evidence of this (no wake)
3) He was a meteorologist so many geologists didn’t take him seriously!
BUT Wegener had lots of evidence to show that the continents were once connected!
1) The jigsaw puzzle-like fit of the continents.
Figure 2.3 in text
Identical fossil assemblages on now widely spaced continents!
best about 250-200 MY ago
become increasingly dissimilar the closer to today we look!
Garrison, 2012, Essentials of Oceanography
3) Sequences of similar rock types on continents which do not now have the same geologic environment!
http://www.geology.ohio-state.edu/~vonfrese/gs100/lect25/index.html
4) Geologic structures (mountain ranges, faults, chains of volcanoes) which match up on either side of oceans but can not be found underwater.
5) Apparent polar wander – paleoclimatic evidence the continents had very different climates 250 MY ago than they do today.
either the continents moved or
the climate bands moved – which means the Earth’s poles of rotation moved.
Earth’s climate zones today are arranged symmetrically around the poles.
http://www.webquest.hawaii.edu/kahihi/sciencedictionary/C/climatezone.php
Paleoclimatic data from ˶300 MY ago, figure 2.5 in text
After Wegener died, his ideas were largely dismissed, until…
Post-Wegener evidence for drifting continents (and plate tectonics)…
6) Apparent Polar Wander – Paleomagnetic evidence.
Figure 2.7 showing that the Earth has a magnetic field very similar to that created by a bar magnet.
Directions of magnets parallel to Earth’s magnetic field lines.
Post-Wegener evidence for drifting continents (and plate tectonics)…
Figure 2.7b showing how magnets align to the Earth’s magnetic field when allowed to move freely.
Rocks containing the mineral magnetite (especially basalt) record the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field at the time the rocks formed.
Figure 2.8a showing apparent polar wander paths for Europe and North America.
Figure 2.8b showing alignment of polar wander curves if the Atlantic Ocean is “closed”
The polar wander tracks for all the continents show great variation, suggesting it is the continents that moved!
If we put the continents “back to.
2012 updated plate tectonics new one use this one backup
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Plate tectonics
Early evidence that led to the idea of continental drift included the matching coastlines of continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Alfred Wegener later proposed the hypothesis of continental drift, suggesting the continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea. Wegener provided additional evidence from rock and fossil distributions, but his hypothesis was rejected by most scientists at the time due to the lack of a proposed mechanism for continental movement. The development of technologies like sonar and magnetometers in the 1940s-50s revealed the structures of ocean ridges and trenches on the seafloor. Analysis of seafloor sediments and magnetic patterns from basalt flows provided evidence that the ocean floor spreads outward from mid-ocean ridges. This
Continental drift- Yalizet
The document summarizes the theory of continental drift, which was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. It explains that the continents move across the ocean bed due to shifting tectonic plates at a rate of 1 to 10 cm per year. This movement of plates causes volcanic and seismic activity at plate boundaries. The document also discusses Pangaea, a supercontinent that existed 300 million years ago before breaking apart over 100 million years.
Continental Drift Theory
This PPT takes a brief dig at the genesis of the Continental Drift Theory. It covers the causes and the evidences of the theory.
Diastrophism
Diastrophism refers to movements and deformations of the Earth's crust. Forces acting on the crust can cause it to fold, fault, or trench. Folding occurs when crust crumples and bends, faulting when it fractures, and trenching when large rock masses slide against each other. These movements are driven by processes like plate tectonics, where continental plates slowly move and interact at boundaries, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic activity. Evidence like matching fossil and rock formations between separated continents supports the theory of plate tectonics and the past existence of supercontinents like Pangaea.
The Creation of the Ocean FloorSCI209Running head .docx
The Creation of the Ocean Floor
SCI/209
Running head: THE CREATION OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
1
THE CREATION OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
5
The Creation of the Ocean Floor
One scientific speculation about the beginning of ocean water declares that as Earth developed from a gas and dust cloud more than 4.5 billion years ago, an enormous quantity of insubstantial elements such as oxygen and hydrogen became confined inside the liquefied inner part of the newly formed planet (Advameg, 2013). In the course of the first few billion years following planets formation, these basic gases emerged across thousands of miles of red-hot and liquefying rock to discharge on the Earth’s surface through fissures (long narrow cracks) and volcanoes.
Inside the earth and atop the exterior, the gas hydrogen joined oxygen developing water. Massive amounts of liquid blanketed the planet as an extraordinarily heavy atmosphere of water cloud. Close to the uppermost part of the atmosphere, where high temperature may possibly dissipate to outward reaches of the earth, water vapor concentrated to a liquid form and dropped into the stratum below, chilling the level. This atmospheric cool down procedure lasted till the initial precipitation dropped to the planet’s young exterior and flared into a misty haze. This came to pass as the creation of an astonishing downpour that through the course of time, progressively filled the ocean cavities.
There are three major classes of tectonic plate boundaries: divergent boundaries, covergent boundaries, and transform boundaries. The divergent boundaries outstanding features are fresh crust is produced as two or more plates tear away from one other. Oceans are generated and grow broader where plates deviate or pull apart. Seafloor expanding is a process in which the molten rock produces new ground underneath water. This progression takes millions of years to establish a 10 foot hill because growth fluctuates from two to 10 centimeters yearly. The convergent boundaries outstanding features are here crust is demolished and reprocessed back into the inside of the Earth as one plate descents under another. These are recognized as Subduction Zones - volcanoes and mountains are often discovered where plates come together. The kinds of volcanoes that can occur depend on the chemical composition of the molten rock that decides its fluidity. There are three kinds of convergent boundaries: Oceanic-Continental Convergence, Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence, and Continental-Continental Convergence (Platetectonics, 2010). The transform boundaries outstanding features are when two plates are skimming parallel by each other. These are additionally identified as transform boundaries or in addition normally called faults. The San Andreas Fault is the best known and considered the most lethal translational line.
One natural event that occurs as a direct result of plate boundary interactions is a tsunami. Plate tectonics are the secondary trigger of tsunamis. When a maj.
Movement of Ocean Water
Surface currents are driven mainly by wind and move large amounts of water across oceans, influencing global climate. Deep currents form due to differences in water density from temperature and salinity and are not wind-driven. Major surface currents like the Gulf Stream distribute heat from the equator to poles, warming areas like northern Europe. El Niño is a periodic warming of tropical Pacific waters that alters weather worldwide and impacts fisheries and agriculture through changed rainfall and storms. Scientists monitor oceans to improve understanding and forecasts of El Niño events and their far-reaching climatic effects.
2_Intro_Oceanography.pptx
This document provides an introduction to oceanography. It discusses the four main branches of earth sciences - geology, meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy. Oceanography is defined as the study and description of the marine environment, involving disciplines like physics, biology, chemistry and geology. The document outlines several verticals within oceanography, including chemical, physical, geological, and biological oceanography. It also discusses marine biogeochemical cycles and plate tectonics. Plate tectonics involves the movement of tectonic plates at divergent boundaries where new crust is formed, and convergent boundaries where plates collide in different ways, such as continent-continent, continent-ocean, or ocean-ocean collisions.
Deformation-of-the-Crust-and-Plate-Tectonics.pdf
This document discusses the theory of plate tectonics and the movement of tectonic plates. It describes how early theories like catastrophism were replaced by uniformitarianism. It then explains how the theory of continental drift was proposed and how evidence from paleomagnetism supported it. It discusses how seafloor spreading was discovered through mapping of the seafloor and analysis of magnetic properties in the rocks. This led to the modern theory of plate tectonics, where lithospheric plates move through divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries. The movement of plates has shaped continents over geologic time.
Continental drift and seafloor spreading
The document discusses continental drift and plate tectonics. It explains that continental drift was first proposed in the 16th century and was further developed and advocated for by Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century. Wegener proposed that the continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea, which began breaking apart about 200 million years ago. The theory of plate tectonics posits that the Earth's crust is broken into plates that move over time, interacting through processes like seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges, subduction at convergent boundaries, and lateral movement at transform boundaries.
ContDrift.ppt
1. Plate tectonics replaced earlier theories like diastrophism and the contracting Earth theory. The contracting Earth theory proposed that the Earth shrank over time through processes like cooling, which caused folding of the crust.
2. Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift in 1915, providing evidence like matching fossil distributions, paleoclimate patterns, and matching craton shapes that suggested continents had moved over time.
3. Wegener's theory was rejected in his time due to errors in his data and an inability to explain the mechanism of drift. It took further magnetic evidence in the 1950s to gain wide acceptance for plate tectonics replacing earlier stationary models of the Earth.
ES 1010, Earth Science 1 Course Learning Outcomes for.docx
ES 1010, Earth Science 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
7. Compare the geography, composition, circulation, and temporal cycles of the oceans.
Reading Assignment
Chapter 9:
Oceans: The Last Frontier
Chapter 10:
The Restless Ocean
Watch the following video:
Williams, C. [IDT-CSU]. (2015, August 7). Coastal processes [Video file]. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/ZO07SgCFKWs
Click here to access a transcript of the video.
NASA Goddard. (2008, October 24). In the zone. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/lB1FADETAyg
Unit Lesson
It is easy to see why Earth is referred to as the “Blue
Planet”—71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by
oceans and seas. However, less than 5% of our
oceans have been explored (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration [NOAA] 2014). So
essentially, most of our Earth is still unexplored and
largely unknown. We do know that oceans contain the
highest mountains, the deepest trenches, and the
longest mountain ranges. On average, the ocean
depth is about four times the average elevation of
continents. In fact, Lutgens & Tarbuck (2014) state that
if the Earth’s continents were perfectly flat, they would
be completely submerged under more than 2,000
meters of seawater!
Oceanography is the branch of science that studies
the world’s oceans. It includes geology, chemistry,
physics, and biology (Lutgens & Tarbuck, 2014).
Oceanographers started mapping the oceans floors as
early as 1872 by dropping weighted lines down to the
ocean bottom at random points. The use of sound navigation and ranging (sonar) began during World War I
to detect enemy submarines, and was later improved during World War II. Sonar uses the echo of sound
waves to plot the profile of the ocean floor. Satellite radar technology has also contributed to mapping the
ocean floor. Today, we have a fairly good picture of the ocean floor topography.
As we study the ocean floor, we notice three major features: continental margins, basin floors, and mid-
oceanic ridge. The continental margins can be classified as active or passive. Active margins are where the
UNIT V STUDY GUIDE
Oceans
An iceberg captured on camera during a 30-day mission in
2012 to map areas of the Arctic aboard the NOAA Ship
Fairweather (NOAA, 2013).
https://online.columbiasouthern.edu/CSU_Content/courses/General_Studies/ES/ES1010/15N/UnitV_CoastalProcesses.pdf
ES 1010, Earth Science
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
ocean lithosphere is subducted beneath the continental crust (recall what you learned in Units III and IV).
These are mainly found around the Pacific Ocean. Passive margins are those that are not experiencing plate
tectonic activity and have more stable topography. Basin floors make up about 30% of the Earth’s surface
(Lutgens & Tarbuck, 2014). These areas are between the margins and the mid-ocean ridges and include
deep trenches, under ...
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Como hacer e interpretar un hidrograma
Este documento explica cómo realizar un hidrograma, que es un gráfico que representa la variación del caudal de un río a lo largo del tiempo. Define un hidrograma y describe los pasos para construirlo a partir de los datos de caudal mensual, incluyendo calcular el caudal medio anual, hallar los coeficientes de caudal mensuales y trazar el gráfico. También explica cómo interpretar un hidrograma para determinar el régimen del río.
Unit 3 - MEDIEVAL CITIES - 2º ESO bil
Medieval cities grew in the 12th century due to improvements in agriculture, trade, and opportunities for a better life. Peasants migrated to cities for work as fewer farmhands were needed, and trade brought prosperity. Cities offered freedoms not available in rural life. Craftsmen produced goods in workshops, often located together by trade. Kings grew stronger by collecting more taxes from economic growth and supporting the rising bourgeois class in cities. Parliaments were created to reduce noble power and approve taxes and budgets.
Unit 2 Feudalism
The document describes aspects of medieval European society such as the feudal system of vassalage ceremonies, different classes of peasants like serfs and freemen, and the work of peasants on manors. It also discusses nobles who trained as knights from a young age and participated in tournaments, as well as the prescribed roles of noblewomen to marry and have children. Finally, it outlines religious orders for men like the Knights Templars and Hospitaller who took monastic vows while protecting pilgrims and the Holy Land.
Unit 1 The Early Middle Ages
The document summarizes key periods and developments during the Middle Ages in Europe. It describes the division of the Roman Empire in 395 which led to the creation of the Byzantine Empire in the East. It then discusses the expansion of Islam under Muhammad and the early Islamic Empire. Finally, it outlines the rise of the Carolingian Empire under Charlemagne who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 and his division of the empire after his death among his three sons.
Tema 10 Primeras civilizaciones
Este documento describe las primeras civilizaciones que surgieron en las cuencas de los ríos Tigris, Éufrates, Nilo y Indo entre los años 3500 a. C. y 1200 a. C. Se detalla la arquitectura, religión, arte y escritura de las civilizaciones mesopotámica, egipcia e india, incluyendo aspectos como las ciudades amuralladas, los zigurats, los templos, los jeroglíficos y los temas representados en el arte como el faraón y los dioses.
Tema 9 - Prehistoria
El documento resume la prehistoria, dividiéndola en la Edad de Piedra (Paleolítico y Neolítico) y la Edad de los Metales (Cobre, Bronce e Hierro). En la Edad de Piedra, los humanos cazaban y recolectaban en el Paleolítico y se volvieron agricultores sedentarios en el Neolítico. En la Edad de los Metales aprendieron la metalurgia y desarrollaron ciudades, comercio y jerarquías sociales. También construyeron monumentos megalíticos como
3.2 Historia de Roma
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Unit 2 relief
- 2. 1- What is the Earth made of?
- 3. Magma
- 5. Activities Exercise 1 on page 15 in your notebooks.
- 6. 2- What is the Earth’s relief?
- 9. Ocean relief
- 10. Ocean relief
- 11. Activity Exercise 1 on page 17.
- 12. 3- Why do landscapes change? CHANGES IN RELIEF EROSION: the wearing away of rocks and other deposits on the earth's surface by the action of water, ice, wind, etc. SEDIMENTATION: material that has been deposited from water, ice, or wind.
- 13. SEDIMENTATION
- 14. The course of a river
- 16. Activities Exercises 1, 2 and 3 on page 19.
- 17. 4- How does relief shape our planet? Continental drift theory Continental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other by appearing to drift across the ocean bed. The concept was developed by Alfred Wegener in 1912. The theory of continental drift was supported by the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how the continents move. Evidence for the movement of continents on tectonic plates is now extensive. Similar plant and animal fossils are found around different continent shores, suggesting that they were once joined. Pangaea (/pænˈdʒiːə/) was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, forming about 300 million years ago. It began to break apart around 200 million years ago. The single global ocean which surrounded Pangaea is accordingly named Panthalassa.
- 18. Pangaea
- 20. Tectonic plates A theory that explains the global distribution of geological phenomena such as seismicity, volcanism, continental drift, and mountain building in terms of the formation, destruction, movement, and interaction of the earth's lithospheric plates.
- 21. Faults and folds
- 22. 5- What are volcanoes and earthquakes?
- 23. Geyser and hot springs
- 25. Earthquakes
- 26. Activities Exercises 1 and 3 on page 21. Exercises 1 and 2 on page 22.