The document summarizes the process of protein synthesis which occurs in two main steps - transcription and translation. During transcription, a copy of mRNA is generated from DNA in the nucleus. This mRNA is then used as a template during translation, which occurs in the cytoplasm. During translation, ribosomes use the mRNA to assemble a polypeptide chain by linking amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. Three key events occur during translation - initiation, elongation, and termination to produce the final protein product.
Nucleic Acids, RNA, DNA, Protein Synthesis, DNA Replication, Chromosomes: The images have big font size and reduced background color. Useful for smartphones, classroom and printouts.
A biofertilizer is a substance which contains living micro-organisms which, when applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant.
ECochG is a variant of brainstem audio evoked response (ABR) where the recording electrode is placed as close as practical to the cochlea. We will use the abbreviation ECOG and ECochG interchangeably below. ECOG is preferable to us as it is shorter.
ECOG is intended to diagnose Meniere's disease, and particular, hydrops (swelling of the inner ear). ECOG may also be abnormal in perilymph fistula, and in superior canal dehiscence. The common feature connecting these illnesses is an imbalance in pressure between the endolymphatic and perilymphatic compartment of the inner ear.
ECOG can also be used to show that the cochlea is normal, in persons who are deaf. The cochlear microphonic of ECOG may be normal in auditory neuropathy (Santarelli and Arslan 2002) as well as other disorders in which the cochlea is preserved but the auditory nerve is damaged (Yokoyama, Nishida et al. 1999).
Finally, ECOG's have also been used to as a indicator of the temporary threshold shift that may follow noise injury (Nam et al, 2004).
Nucleic Acids, RNA, DNA, Protein Synthesis, DNA Replication, Chromosomes: The images have big font size and reduced background color. Useful for smartphones, classroom and printouts.
A biofertilizer is a substance which contains living micro-organisms which, when applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, colonize the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant.
ECochG is a variant of brainstem audio evoked response (ABR) where the recording electrode is placed as close as practical to the cochlea. We will use the abbreviation ECOG and ECochG interchangeably below. ECOG is preferable to us as it is shorter.
ECOG is intended to diagnose Meniere's disease, and particular, hydrops (swelling of the inner ear). ECOG may also be abnormal in perilymph fistula, and in superior canal dehiscence. The common feature connecting these illnesses is an imbalance in pressure between the endolymphatic and perilymphatic compartment of the inner ear.
ECOG can also be used to show that the cochlea is normal, in persons who are deaf. The cochlear microphonic of ECOG may be normal in auditory neuropathy (Santarelli and Arslan 2002) as well as other disorders in which the cochlea is preserved but the auditory nerve is damaged (Yokoyama, Nishida et al. 1999).
Finally, ECOG's have also been used to as a indicator of the temporary threshold shift that may follow noise injury (Nam et al, 2004).
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
2. Protein Synthesis
Instructions for proteins are stored as DNA in
the nucleus (one gene = one protein)
The ribosomes that actually make the proteins
are outside in the cytoplasm
DNA is too large to
exit through nuclear
pores… it requires a
messenger to send
the instructions
4. Transcription
In transcription, a copy of a protein recipe
called messenger RNA (mRNA) is made from
DNA
mRNA is half the width of DNA and can leave
the nucleus
5. Ribonucleic acid
Contains the sugar
ribose
Single-stranded
Bases are G, C, A, U
U = Uracil, replaces
Thymine
G still pairs with C
A pairs with U
DNA vs RNA
Deoxyribonucleic
acid
Contains the sugar
deoxyribose
Double-stranded
Bases are G, C, A, T
U
R
P
Uracil
Nucleotide
(RNA)
T
D
P
Thymine
Nucleotide
(DNA)
7. STEP ONE: INITIATION
RNA polymerase locates the section of DNA
(gene) that it wants to transcribe.
It attaches to the promoter region, causing DNA
to unzip with the help of a Helicase.
Polymerase and Helicase are enzymes (special
proteins!)
8. STEP TWO: ELONGATION
Once DNA is unzipped, the Polymerase
transcribes the DNA section
Free-floating RNA nucleotides attach
This is just like Replication, but with the base
uracil instead of thymine. (A-U and C-G)
9. STEP TWO: ELONGATION
For example, if the DNA strand read ACGT, then the
RNA would be UGCA.
This continues until the entire gene is transcribed,
ending with the Stop sequence.
10. STEP THREE: TERMINATION
Once the stop sequence is reached, the RNA
strand detaches
It is then processed into mRNA by adding a 5’
cap and a poly-A tail (for protection)
Finally, the mRNA leaves the nucleus! (DNA rezips)
13. GROUP POSTER PROJECT
In your groups of four (each table should work with the one
behind them, and turn your chairs around)
You will be given a step of transcription or DNA vs RNA
For your assigned topic, make sure there is:
A legible title
Large writing describing what occurs in the step (or
large writing that explains the differences between
DNA and RNA)
A large picture, colored. (All writing should be in
marker)
14. Translation - Overview
In translation, a ribosome uses an mRNA
recipe to select and put together a sequence of
amino acids
mRNA is read 3 bases at a time (3 bases = 1 codon)
Each codon = 1 amino acid
DNA template: A T A G A T C C A
mRNA: U A U C U A G G U
Amin
o Acid
1
Amin
o Acid
2
Amin
o Acid
3
15. DNA: A T A G A T C C A
mRNA: U A U C U A G G U
Tyrosine Glycine
Leucine
16. Special Codons
As a ribosome reads an mRNA transcript, special
codons tell it where to start and stop making a
protein
START codon: A U G (must memorize!)
mRNA: A A G G U C A U G C C A C G U U A A
Amino Acid: Methionine Proline Arginine STOP
17. STEP ONE
The mRNA from the nucleus makes its way
through the cell to a free-floating ribosome and
attaches to it.
18. STEP TWO:
Each set of three RNA bases is called a
codon.
For this sequence: AUGCUA, AUG is a
codon and CUA is another codon.
Each codon codes for a single amino acid,
which is the building block of proteins.
19. STEP TWO:
At the ribosome, the codon of mRNA pairs
with its anti-codon (correct base pairs)
For our earlier codons, AUG would pair
with UAC and the anticodon for CUA is
GAU.
20. STEP TWO:
tRNA (transfer
RNA) translates
each codon into
one amino acid.
Amino Acids are
linked with
peptide bonds to
form a chain
21. STEP THREE:
Once the amino
acids are linked
with a PEPTIDE
BOND, the mRNA
strand moves like
an assembly line,
releasing the first
codon and
anticodon.
22. STEP FOUR
The chain of amino
acids (polypeptide
chain) will then form a
protein.
There are 20 different
amino acids, which are
the codes for all living
things!
23. WHEEL OF CODONS!!
Input the mRNA
codon, get out
the amino acid!
Special amino
acids:
AUG= start
UGA=stop
24.
25. Types of RNA
Structure Function
mRNA
(messenger)
Single strand Takes copied DNA
recipe to ribosome
tRNA
(transfer)
Has anticodon on one
end, carries amino acid
on the other
Delivers amino acids to
ribosomes
rRNA
(ribosomal)
Folded into ribosome
shape
The ribosome itself is
made of this
28. • The process of translation is further
divided into 3 steps
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
29. In initiation, there are 4 steps involved
1. Dissociation of 80S ribosomes into 40S
and 60S components
2. Formation of 40S pre-initiation complex
3. Formation of 40S initiation complex
4. Formation of 80S initiation complex
30. • The process of elongation is divided into
3 main steps
1. Binding of aminoacyle tRNA complex to
A site of ribosomes
2. Peptide bond formation
3. Translocation
31. Ribosomes
• In eukaryotes, ribosome is of 80S
• In prokaryotes, ribosome is of 70S
(S) is Swedberg unit or sedimentation
coefficient
(g) Is relative centrifugal force
34. • Every ribosome on mRNA will be involve
in synthesis of polypeptide which will be
same to other peptides being synthesized
by other ribosomes present on the same
mRNA
• The anticodon in tRNA will be red from 3’
to 5’ direction
• where as mRNA is red from 5’ to 3’
polarity
35. • During transcription, the mRNA produced
at first instance from template strand of
DNA is known as heterogeneous nuclear
RNA (hnRNA) because
• In this RNA, exact sequence are present
called exon and other segments which are
not complimentary to coding strand are
known as introns.
• DNA dependent RNA polymerases are
involve in synthesis of hnRNA.
36. • Splicing of introns takes place by means of
splicesomes. It consist of the primary
transcript and 5 small nuclear RNA which
are referred to as U1, U2, U4, U5 and U6
and unknown number of proteins.
• Splicesome remove introns from hnRNA.
(When ribosome nucleic acid act as an enzyme is called
ribozyme).
37. Translation
• Synthesis of protein from mRNA
Consist of 3 steps
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
The process of initiation consist of 4 steps
38. 1. Dissociation of 80S ribosome to 40S
and 60S subunits
How this process start? First of all, there are
two initiation factors. Overall, in whole
process of initiation, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA,
10 initiation factors, GTP , ATP and
aminoacids take part in the whole
initiation process.
Two factors
1. eIF-3
2. eIF-1A
39. • These factors binds to 40S subunit and
separation of 2 subunits takes place due to
binding of these 2 factors.
• Another factor eIF-3A binds to 60S subunit
40S
60S
eIF-3
eIF-1A
eIF-3A
40S
eIF-3
eIF-1A
40S
eIF-3
40. 2. Formation of 40S pre-initiation complex
Another factor eIF-2 binds to GTP and then
the complex binds to tRNA
eIF-1A 40S
eIF-3
eIF-2
GTP
eIF-1A
eIF-3
40S
eIF-1A
eIF-3
eIF-2
eIF-1A
eIF-3
40S
eIF-2
eIF-1A
eIF-3
GTP
40S
eIF-2
eIF-1A
eIF-3
GTP
40S
eIF-2
eIF-1A
eIF-3
GTP
eIF-2
40S
GTP
eIF-2
eIF-3
40S
GTP
eIF-2
eIF-1A
eIF-3
40S
GTP
eIF-2
41. 3. Formation of 40S initiation complex
The 5’ terminals of most mRNA are caped. This
cap facilitates the binding of mRNA to 40S pre-
initiation complex. This binding require
hydrolysis of ATP
eIF-1A
eIF-3
GTP
eIF-2
Caped
mRNA
40S
42. 4. Formation of 80S initiation complex
This step involves the hydrolysis of GTP
which is already bound to eIF-2 by means
of eIF-5. This reaction results in the
release of initiation factors bound to 40S
subunits. So finally 40S subunit re-
associate to 60S subunit.
43. Cap A U G
met
P-site A-site
U A C
80S initiation complex
40S
60S
mRNA
tRNA binds or present at
P-site and containing
methionine aminoacid.
So A-site is vacant to
accommodate new tRNA
containing another
appropriate aminoacid.
44. Elongation
It has 3 steps
1. Binding of aminoacyle tRNA complex
to A-site of ribosomes
In the complete 80S ribosome, A-site is free
whereas, P-site contains tRNA with
metheonine. The binding of appropriate
aminoacyl tRNA in A-site require proper
codon recognition.
45. • eEF-1α forms a complex with GTP and
entering aminoacyl tRNA. This complex
allows aminoacyl tRNA to enter A-site with
release of eEF-1α and GDP.
2. Peptide bond formation
The α-aminogroup of the amino acid in the
A-site carries out and attach on carboxyl
group of peptidal tRNA present in P-site.
This reaction is catalysed by peptidal
transferase.
46. O
NH-C linkage (peptidal linkage)
This enzymatic activity may also be perform
by some ribosomal RNA that’s why they
are known as ribozymes.
This results in the attachment of growing
peptide chain to the tRNA in the A-site.
