Seas and Oceans are blue beauties of the planet earth.
Oceans are vast body of saline water occupying the great depressions on the earth. The surface beneath the oceanic waters is characterized by a lot of relief features.
The structure, configuration and relief features of the oceans also vary from each other.On the basis of Bathymetry and other studies, the morphology of Ocean basins contains a lot of relief features. This module highlights many of those features.
The reason for the occurrence of such a huge mass of water on the globe, is still a myth and reality. The reason goes back to the Origin of Earth itself. The exact mode of origin is not precisely known. Scientists assume, both Primary and secondary sources would have given rise to all both air and water on the earth. Two possible sources as internal source (or) external source have been proposed so far. Some of them are attributed towards the theories of origin of the earth.
The reason for the occurrence of such a huge mass of water on the globe, is still a myth and reality. The reason goes back to the Origin of Earth itself. The exact mode of origin is not precisely known. Scientists assume, both Primary and secondary sources would have given rise to all both air and water on the earth. Two possible sources as internal source (or) external source have been proposed so far. Some of them are attributed towards the theories of origin of the earth.
Oceans also contain a huge amount of mineral resources. Deep ocean basins are the zones of continuous sedimentation. The oceans are the final destination for many of all the sediments to be deposited. About 200 million years of earth history are available in the fossiliferous sediments deposited within the ocean basins. This module explains the characteristics of marine sediments.
Every continent or island is bordered by a long or short coastline. Coastline is the line separating the land and sea. Coastal zones are the transition zones between terrestrial and marine habitat. They form an interface between land and oceanic natural processes. Coastal areas also are varied in their topography, climate and vegetation. Some are sandy beaches, rocky shores, with or without tidal inlets. The climate of a coast are controlled by the land and sea breezes and the humidity controlled by marine water. Waves are powerful tools for constructive and destructive activities. Hence. the geomorphology of beach, materials and processes are always not constant due to the impact of everlasting action of tides, waves and currents.
Introduction
Water resources of India at a glance
Hydrogeological cycle
Exploration of groundwater
Groundwater potential zone
Indicators
Sensors
Rules for selection of imagery
Conclusion
Reference
Sedimentary basins are the depressions in the earth's crust where loose particles accumulate and finally lithified to form sedimentary rocks. Basins are particularly attractive to geoscientists from time immemorial due to the wealth hidden here in the form of oil, gas, coal etc. In this document you will find the types of basins, basin-fill types, methods of basin analysis and so on.
The Atlantic is relatively a narrow body of water. It exists between two parallel continental masses.
The Atlantic Ocean touches both the Europe and the Africa on its eastern side. It is bounded by North America and South America along its western region. The Atlantic has no definite northern or southern boundaries. It runs into the Arctic Ocean on the north, and the Antarctic Ocean on the south. Some geographers consider the Arctic Circle as its northern boundary, and the Antarctic Circle as its southern boundary. The ancient Romans named the Atlantic after the Atlas mountains. These mountains rose at the western end of the Mediterranean sea.
Oceans also contain a huge amount of mineral resources. Deep ocean basins are the zones of continuous sedimentation. The oceans are the final destination for many of all the sediments to be deposited. About 200 million years of earth history are available in the fossiliferous sediments deposited within the ocean basins. This module explains the characteristics of marine sediments.
Every continent or island is bordered by a long or short coastline. Coastline is the line separating the land and sea. Coastal zones are the transition zones between terrestrial and marine habitat. They form an interface between land and oceanic natural processes. Coastal areas also are varied in their topography, climate and vegetation. Some are sandy beaches, rocky shores, with or without tidal inlets. The climate of a coast are controlled by the land and sea breezes and the humidity controlled by marine water. Waves are powerful tools for constructive and destructive activities. Hence. the geomorphology of beach, materials and processes are always not constant due to the impact of everlasting action of tides, waves and currents.
Introduction
Water resources of India at a glance
Hydrogeological cycle
Exploration of groundwater
Groundwater potential zone
Indicators
Sensors
Rules for selection of imagery
Conclusion
Reference
Sedimentary basins are the depressions in the earth's crust where loose particles accumulate and finally lithified to form sedimentary rocks. Basins are particularly attractive to geoscientists from time immemorial due to the wealth hidden here in the form of oil, gas, coal etc. In this document you will find the types of basins, basin-fill types, methods of basin analysis and so on.
The Atlantic is relatively a narrow body of water. It exists between two parallel continental masses.
The Atlantic Ocean touches both the Europe and the Africa on its eastern side. It is bounded by North America and South America along its western region. The Atlantic has no definite northern or southern boundaries. It runs into the Arctic Ocean on the north, and the Antarctic Ocean on the south. Some geographers consider the Arctic Circle as its northern boundary, and the Antarctic Circle as its southern boundary. The ancient Romans named the Atlantic after the Atlas mountains. These mountains rose at the western end of the Mediterranean sea.
After attending this lesson, the learner should be able to comprehend about the geographic setting of the Pacific ocean, its dimension, associated water masses, morphological features of the ocean floor, very significant conditions of the ocean, sediments, marine life, marine pollution and other hazards. In addition the user should be able to understand, the importance of the Pacific in the context of global activities including the historical oceanographic explorations.
The sphere of water on earth refers to the hydrosphere.
It encompasses all the water present in seas, oceans, lakes, rivers, reservoirs, ice caps, soil moisture, water vapor in the atmosphere and also as groundwater.
Among all these, ocean stands as a principal component of the hydrosphere. About 97 per cent of all the water available on the earth are existing as oceans. This module explains the global seas and oceans.
The Physical Oceanography is an essential part of the study in oceanography. It is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters.
After attending this lesson, the user would be able to understand the basic characteristics of the submarine canyons, their origin, and their distribution in various major oceans of the world.
Detailed information about the morphological conditions, sedimentology and marine life of the submarine canyons will also be understood.
E-content is a Comprehensive package of teaching material put into hypermedia format. Hypermedia is multimedia with internet deplorability. E-content can not be created by a teaching faculty alone . It needs the role of teacher, Video editor, production assistants, web developers (HTML 5 or Adobe captivate, etc). Analyze the learner needs and goals of the instructional material development, development of a delivery system and content, pilot study of the material developed, implementation, evaluating, refining the materials etc. In designing and development of E-content we have to adopt one of the instructional design models based on our requirements.
Pedagogy is the most commonly understood approach to teaching. It refers to the theory and practice of learning. Pedagogy is often described as the act of teaching. Pedagogy has little variations between traditional teaching and online teaching. Online teaching pedagogy is a method of effective teaching practice specifically developed for teaching via the internet. It has a set of prescribed methods, strategies, and practices for teaching academic subjects in an online (or blended) environment, where students are in a physical location separate from the faculty member.
Technology has changed the possibilities within teaching and learning. Classes, which prior to the digital era were restricted to lectures, talks, and physical objects, no longer have to be designed in that manner. Training in a synchronous virtual classroom can only be successful with the active participation and engagement of the learners. Explore the Virtual Classroom’s features and see how they can support and enhance your tutoring style.
• The monitoring and evaluation of the institutional processes require a carefully structured system of internal and external review. The NAAC expects the Institutions to undertake continuous Academic and Administrative Audits (AAA). This presentation is intended to serve as advisory to all accredited HEIs who volunteer to undertake AAA. The pros and cons of this process are also highlighted. Academic and Administrative Audit is the process of evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of the administrative procedure. It includes assessment of policies, strategies & functions of the various administrative departments, control of the overall administrative system, etc. This checklist gives an overview what the audit committee members may look into while visiting an institution for this purpose. It invariably follows the Quality Indicators Framework prescribed by Accreditation Council in India.
• The monitoring and evaluation of the institutional processes require a carefully structured system of internal and external review. The NAAC expects the Institutions to undertake continuous Academic and Administrative Audits (AAA). This presentation is intended to serve as advisory to all accredited HEIs who volunteer to undertake AAA.
Chemical analysis data of water samples can not be used directly for understanding. They are to be used for various calculations in order to determine the quality parameters that have a lot of significances. A. Balasubramanian and D. Nagaraju, of the Department of Studies in Earth Science, Centre for Advanced Studies, University of Mysore, Mysore-570006, Karnataka, India have recently brought out a software and its application manual as a good book for reference and execution. The Name of the software is WATCHIT meaning Water Chemistry Interpretation Techniques. This software computes more than 100 parameters pertaining to water quality interpretations. The software follows its own method of approach to determine the required results. Systems International Units are used. Limited input parameters are required. This is suitable for all scientific research, government water quality data interpretations and for understanding the quality of water before using it.
Water conservation refers to reducing the usage of water and recycling of waste water for different purposes like domestic usage, industries, agriculture etc. This technical article highlights most of the popular methods of water conservation. A special note on rainwater harvesting is also provided.
This module gives an overview of general applications of current hydrogeological aspects. It is for the basic understanding of students and research scholars.
Climate Extreme (extreme weather or climate event) refers to the occurrence of a value of a weather or climate variable above (or below) a threshold value near the upper (or lower) ends of the range of observed values of the variable. Extreme weather and climate events, interacting with exposed and vulnerable human and natural systems, can lead to disasters.
WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT POSSIBILITIES IN CHAMARAJANAGAR TALUK...Prof. A.Balasubramanian
Any unplanned development and utilization of water resources with result in water scarcity. In many parts of the developing world. Such a situation exists. In order to do proper planning and
management of water resources, it is necessary to conduct detailed analyses of the factors, which influence the water availability and its uses. In the present study, a comprehensive analysis have been undertaken for proper utilization of water resources in Chamarajanagar Taluk, which has been identified as one of the drought hit districts of Karnataka, in India. The factors analysed in this work are, surface and groundwater availability, land use, cropping pattern, recharge potential of soils and the rainfall pattern in typical areas of Taluk. It is observed that the problem of water scarcity is mainly due to the lack of irrigation planning and management. Hence, a
modified cropping pattern is suggested by taking into consideration of all available water resources and other conditions.
In broad terms, cultural geography examines the cultural values, practices, discursive and material expressions and artefacts of people, the cultural diversity and plurality of society.
It also emphasizes on how cultures are distributed over space, how places and identities are produced, how people make sense of places and build senses of place, and how people produce and communicate knowledge and meaning.
Minerals are formed by changes in chemical energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. In nature, minerals are formed by crystallisation or precipitation from concentrated solutions. These solutions are called as ore-bearing fluids. Ore-bearing fluids are characterised by high concentration of certain metallic or other elements.
Fluids are the most effective agents for the transport of material in the mantle and the Earth's crust.
Soils are complex mixers forming the skin of the earth's surface. Soil is a dynamic layer in which many complex chemical, physical and biological activities are going on constantly. Soils become adjusted to conditions of climate, landform and vegetation, and will change internally when those controlling conditions change. Soils are products of weathering. Soils play a dominant role in earth's geomorphic processes in a cyclic manner. The characteristics of soils are very essential for several reasons. This module highlights these characteristics.
GIS TECHNIQUES IN WATER RESOURCES PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT IN CHAMARAJANAGAR ...Prof. A.Balasubramanian
The over-exploitation and contamination of groundwater continue to threaten the long-term sustainability of our precious water resources, in spite of the best efforts made by various agencies.
This has many serious implications to the economic development of a country like India. Lack of
judicious planning and integration of environmental consideration to ground water development
projects are primarily responsible for such a state of affair in the ground water sector. Geographical Information Systems could be of immense help in planning sustainable ground water management strategies, especially in hard rock areas with limited ground water potential. Data collected from
Satellite Imagery and through field investigations have been integrated, on a GIS platform, for demarcation and prioritization of areas suitable for ground water development and ground water augmentation. An attempt has also been made to assess the vulnerability of the area to ground water
contamination. This paper demonstrates the utility of GIS in planning judicious management of ground water resources in a typical hard rock area of Chamarajanagar Taluk, Karnataka, state India.
Nanobiomaterials are very effective components for several biomedical and pharmaceutical studies. Among the metallic, organic, ceramic and polymeric nanomaterials, metallic nanomaterials have shown certain prominent biomedical applications. Enormous works have been done to synthesize, analyse and administer the metallic nanoparticles for various kinds of medical and therapeutic applications, during the last forty years. In these analyses, the prominent biomedical applications of ten metallic nanobiomaterials have been reviewed from various sources and works. It has been found that almost nine of them are used in a very wide spectrum of medical and theranostic applications.
A variety of Nano-biomaterials are synthesised, characterised and tested to find out their potentialities by global scientific communities, during the last three decades. Among those, nanostructured ceramics, cements and coatings are being considered for major use in orthopaedic, dental and other medical applications. The development of novel biocompatible ceramic materials with improved biomedical functions is at the forefront of health-related applications, all over the world. Understanding of the potential biomedical applications of ceramic nanomaterials will provide a major insight into the future developments. This study reviews and enlists the prominent potential biomedical applications of ceramic nanomaterials, like Calcium Phosphate (CaP), Tri-Calcium Phosphate (TCP), Hydroxy-Apatite(HAP), TCP+HAP, Si substituted HAP, Calcium Sulphate and Carbonate, Bioactive Glasses, Bioactive Glass Ceramics, Titania-Based Ceramics, Zirconia Ceramics, Alumina Ceramcis and Ceramic Polymer Composites.
The present forest and tree cover of the country is 78.37 million ha in 2007 which is 23.84% of the geographical areas and it includes 2.82% tree cover. This becomes 25.25%, if the areas above tree line i.e., 4000m are excluded from the total geographical area. The forest cover is classified into 3 canopy density classes.
1. Very Dense Forest (VDF) with canopy density more than 70%
2. Moderately Dense Forest (MDF) with Canopy density between 40-70% and
3. Open Forest (OF) with Canopy density between 10-40%
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
1. 1
TOPOGRAPHY OF OCEAN FLOORS
by
Prof. A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth
Science
University of Mysore, India
2. 2
Introduction:
Seas and Oceans are blue beauties of the planet
earth.
Oceans are vast body of saline water
occupying the great depressions on the earth.
They belong to the hydrosphere and cover
almost 97% of it.
Oceans cover 361 million Sq.km of the earth’s
surface.
3. 3
The volume of water is 1.37 billion cubic km.
They are extensive, exhaustive and exploitable
marine ecosystems.
Very huge masses of water with varied
dimension exist as oceans.
On-shore and off-shore marine ecosystems are
characterized by very distinct features with
unique fauna and flora.
They hold many marine habitat and contain a
lot of natural resources.
4. 4
When we move towards the seashore, we may
see the beaches with splashing tides and
dancing waves.
There is a bluish water body seen as a straight
flat plane denoting the sea-level.
Waves coming towards the land break while
nearing towards the coast and subsides while
touching the beach.
The coastline is the boundary between land
and ocean.
5. 5
The surface beneath the oceanic waters is
characterized by a lot of relief features.
The structure, configuration and relief features
of the oceans also vary from each other.
All major oceans and seas vary in their sizes,
shape, depth, areal extension and in all other
aspects like temperature, density, salinity and
chemical composition.
The marine geological, chemical and biological
information and data are very vast and useful
for studying and analyzing the oceans.
6. 6
On the basis of Bathymetry and other studies,
the morphology of Ocean basins include:
1) Continental margins encompassing
Continental shelf & Continental slope,
2) Deep ocean basins encompassing the
Abyssal plains ,
abyssal hills, ocean trenches,
Mid-oceanic ridges and deep ocean floor.
7. 7
In this episode, the following aspects are
going to be seen:
Historical ocean explorations
Continental Shelf
Continental Slope & Submarine canyons
Features of Deep Ocean basins
Mid Oceanic Ridges
8. 8
1. Historical ocean explorations
Ever since people started sailing the oceans,
attempts have been made to map them.
Ptolemy’s oldest map is an example.
Modern knowledge of the ocean began with
voyages of discovery of Christopher
Columbus (1492-1494), Vasco da Gama
(1497-1499), Ferdinand Magellan (1519-
1522), and many others.
9. 9
They laid the foundation for global trade routes
stretching from Spain to the Philippines in the
early 16th century.
The routes were based on a good working
knowledge of trade-winds, the westerlies, and
western boundary currents in the Atlantic and
Pacific.
The early European explorers were soon
followed by scientific voyages of discovery led
by (among many others),James Cook (1728-
1779), Charles Darwin (1809-1882).
10. 10
Sir James Clark Ross and Sir John Ross. All of
them surveyed the Arctic and Antarctic
regions from the Victory, the Isabella, and
the Erebus.
Edward Forbes (1815-1854) studied the
vertical distribution of life in the oceans.
11. 11
Others collected oceanic observations and
produced useful charts, including Edmond
Halley who charted the trade-winds and
monsoons and Benjamin Franklin who charted
the Gulf Stream.
Slow ships of the 19th and 20th centuries gave
way to satellites, drifters, and autonomous
instruments toward the end of the 20th century.
12. 12
Topography refers to the elevation of a land
with reference to the sea level.
Bathymetry refers to the depth of water column
below the sea level.
Bathymetry refers to the depth zones of Ocean
Basins depicted as charts and maps prepared
using depth sounding techniques.
The words Bathos means depth, Metry means
Measurement.
13. 13
The measurement of ocean depths in the
Mediterranean sea was started as back as 85
B.C.
In 1872, the HMS Challenger expedition was
the first to use fully the methods of
Bathymetry.
14. 14
The Challenger was the first vessel used to
systematically record information about all the
oceans except the Arctic, including their
depths, circulations, temperatures, and organic
life.
In 1925, the Meteor, one of the oldest South
Atlantic Ocean expedition – Used
echosounder, for depth measurements using
sound waves.
15. 15
In 1950s, the sophisticated Precision Depth
Recorders were invented and used.
Ocean Bathymetry was used as the basis to
conduct all expeditions and experiments in
different depth zones of oceans.
The precision depth Recorders of 1950s and
multi beam echo sounders help to efficiently
and accurately map the ocean relief features.
16. 16
A Hypsographic curve is a graphical
representation of the area of earth’s surface
above any given elevation (or) depth. This
may be above the sea level or below the sea
level.
This diagram shows the hypsographic curve of
the earth’s surface, showing how the surface
area of the globe is distributed.
17. 17
The vertical scale refers to the height (or) depth
in metre and the horizontal scale refers to the
percentage of total are equated to 5.2 million
sq.km.
The Morphology of Ocean Basin means the
configuration of the ocean basins in terms of
relief features.
This could be analysed by using the
bathymetric records.
18. 18
Great ocean bathymetric mapping, marine
explorations and expeditions have provided us
enormous data and information about the
world’s oceans.
The world’s ocean floor as mapped by Bruce
Heezen and Marie Tharp is presented here.
This map shows the spreading zones,
subduction zones with their trenches.
19. 19
Oceanic dimensions range from around 1500
km for the minimum width of the Atlantic to
more than 13,000 km for the north-south extent
of the Atlantic and the width of the Pacific.
Typical depths are only 3-4 km. So horizontal
dimensions of ocean basins are 1,000 times
greater than the vertical dimension.
The amount of land above sea level is very
much less than the volume of the sea.
20. 20
It is seen from the graph that the average
height of land is 840 m and the average depth
is about 3795m.
This diagram gives us an idea about the general
shape of the oceans.
Only a small part goes deeper than 6000 m and
the deepest troughs are beyond 10 km.
Satellite oceanography is a milestone in ocean
analysis.
21. 21
The launching in 1978 of Seasat, the first
oceanographic satellite, revolutionized
measurements of physical properties of the
ocean.
Within a few years, the sea-surface
temperature, wave height, variations in sea
surface contours, ice cover, chlorophyll
content, and other parameters were measured
and reported almost instantly from satellites.
22. 22
Satellites now observe the oceans, air, and
land.
Thousands of drifters observe the upper two
kilometers of the ocean.
Data from these systems, when fed into
numerical models allows the study of Earth as
a system.
2. Continental shelf
A schematic profile of the continental margin
to the deep-sea shows the following zones:
23. 23
1. The coastal plain is the first part of the
water's edge.
It includes the beaches, mainly covered by
unconsolidated sediments.
These are subjected to wave energy that
moves these sediments by converging on
headlands.
2. The inner and outer continental shelf. It is
about 70 km wide, bordering the continent –
topography.
24. 24
It generally resembles that of the coastal plain.
It has a gentle slope of about 0.1 degree
(1.9m/km).
Sediments are transported across this shelf
region by the currents.
3. The continental slope is rather steep slope
with 4 degrees (76m/km), following the
continental shelf break.
25. 25
Some slopes are cut by the submarine canyons.
These canyons are spaced closer together as
the slope increases.
Deep-sea fans are also formed where these
canyons empty out their sediments onto the
deep-sea floor.
4. The upper and lower continental rise comes
next. These are usually smooth due to sediment
cover. The slope may be of 0.5 degrees
(9.5m/km).
26. 26
The final part is the Deep-ocean Basin.
The underwater zone bordering the continents
is known as the continental shelf.
It begins from the shoreline and gently slopes
down to a depth of about 130 metres.
The Continental shelves vary in their width
from almost zero up to the 1,500-km-wide.
27. 27
The maximum is seen at the Siberian shelf in
the Arctic Ocean.
The average width of the continental shelf goes
to about 75 kilometres.
The edge of the shelf, called as the shelf-break,
occurs at a depth of 20m to 550 m , averaging
to 130 m. This break is marked by an abrupt
increase in the gradient or slope to an average
of about 4°.
28. 28
In places like the Arctic region, the
continental shelf extends upto a distance of
1,600 kilometres.
In some other areas, particularly those
bordering much of the Pacific, it measures only
1.6 kilometres or less.
The extensions of major rivers and their
valleys of varying depths cut through the
continental shelf region.
29. 29
The continental shelf region collects much of
the sediments (deposits of sand and mud) that
are carried by the rivers and deposited into the
ocean.
The continental shelves are the most exploited
oceanic regions commercially.
It is here, all the petroleum, sand and gravel
deposits, and fishery resources are found in
enormous amounts.
30. 30
It is also the location where most of the wastes
are getting dumped.
The shelves consist of vast deposits of sands,
muds, and gravels, overlying crystalline rocks
and appreciable thicknesses of consolidated
sedimentary rocks.
Deep submarine canyons are sometimes found
cutting across the continental shelf and slope
regions.
31. 31
They are often found to be extending from the
mouths of major rivers of continents.
The notable rivers having such submarine
canyons are the Congo, Amazon, Ganges, and
Hudson rivers.
3. Continental slope & submarine canyons
Continental slope marks the boundary of the
continental granitic mass and defines the
boundary between continental crust and
oceanic crust.
32. 32
Continental slopes are the longest and highest
slopes on the earth.
The slope may be straight or curved.
The width of continental shelf zone may go
upto 150 km inside the sea.
The water depth may range from 200m to
2000m.
This is a zone of steep slope.
The slope may range from 5°to more than 60°.
33. 33
In this steep topographic gradient, there may be
no marine deposits.
Many of the sediments may directly move
down into the deep ocean basins.
The continental slope zone occupy 8.5 % of the
total are of ocean basins.
Within Atlantic ocean it is about 12.4% .
Within the Pacific ocean it is about 7.0% . In
the Indian Ocean, it is about 6.5%.
34. 34
Continental slope is geologically not belonging
to the oceanic crust, but a part of the
continental margin covered by oceans.
The most outstanding features of the
continental slopes are the presence of features
like submarine canyons.
Sub marine canyons
Submarine canyons are steep sided and V-
shaped valleys with tributaries, similar to those
of river cut canyons seen on land.
35. 35
These are formed due to continental rifting.
The distributary channels are called as levees.
Submarine canyons are located in transverse
direction to continental shelves.
The fan-shaped deposits of these canyons
which are dumped at the bottom are known as
deep-sea fans.
These are distinct underwater alluvial fans.
They are transported and deposited by turbidity
currents.
36. 36
Submarine canyons resemble river canyons on
land, usually having steep, rocky walls.
They are found along most continental slopes.
Those of the Grand Bahama Canyon, which are
thought to be the deepest, cut nearly 3 mi (5
km) deep into the continental slope.
Most submarine canyons extend only about 30
mi (50 km) or less, but a few are more than 200
mi (300 km) long
37. 37
Modern submarine canyons vary considerably
in their dimensions.
The average lengths of canyons has been
estimated to be about 34 mi (55 km); although
the Bering Canyon is more than 680 mi (1100
km) long and is the world's longest submarine
canyon.
The shortest canyons are those of the Hawaiian
Islands, and average about 6 mi (10 km) in
length.
38. 38
Submarine canyons are characterized by
relatively steep gradients.
The average slope of canyon floors is 309 ft/mi
(58 m/km).
In general, shorter canyons tend to have higher
gradients.
For example, shorter canyons of the Hawaiian
group have an average gradient of 766 ft/mi
(144 m/km), whereas the Bering Canyon has a
slope of only 42 ft/mi (7.9 m/km).
39. 39
Continental Rise:
At the base of continental slope, the
topographic gradient decreases to 1° (or) less
and the ocean enters into the abyssal plains or
hills.
This portion of the sea floor is known as
continental rise.
This is a product of deposition by turbidity
current, underwater landslides and many other
processes.
40. 40
Features of deep ocean basins
The schematic profile of an ocean basin shows
the following ten features:
1. Submarine volcanoes.
2. Seamounts are isolated submarine hills,
steep sides, volcano-shaped - more than 1 km
in relief.
3. Mid-ocean rises and ridges.
4. Abyssal plains.
41. 41
5. Knolls - or abyssal hills (mostly in Pacific)
30-1,000m in relief, several nm wide, origin
unknown, very common less than 1000m
elevation, not completely smooth.
6. Trenches - mostly in the Pacific - mark the
transition between the continents and the ocean
basins.
These are steep sided - as deep as 11000m.
Some are "higher" than the Mt. Everest from
the base.
42. 42
7. Island arcs - on landward side of trenches -
areas of active mountain building - often with
high mountains on the adjacent continent.
8. Fracture zones in the oceans are generally
east-west oriented.
They extend several 1000km across the major
Oceans.
9. Guyots or flat topped seamounts.
These gets eroded seamounts during exposure
at the surface. They are more than 1 km in
relief.
43. 43
10. Atolls.
The abyssal plains lying at depths of 5000-
6000m are nearly flat.
This is mainly due to sedimentation.
They are found mostly in the Atlantic and are
absent in the eastern Indian and most of the
Pacific ocean floors.
If there are no plains, then there may be
oceanic trenches.
44. 44
Ocean trenches:
Trenches are long narrow depressions in the
ocean floor.
They reach a depth of about 7000m to 11000m
below sea level.
They occupy 1% of the surface of the earth.
45. 45
The following are the morphological features
of the deep ocean-basin:
a) the width of the Deep Sea Trenches varies
from 30km-100 km, the Relief of features
go upto > 2 km. Water depth may range from
5000-12000 m.
b) The width of Abyssal Hills may range from
100m to 100,000 m. The Relief may range
from 1m – 1000 m.
46. 46
Most of the Trenches lie parallel to mountain
ranges.
There are 26 trenches in the world ocean:
3 in the Atlantic Ocean
1 in the Indian Ocean
22 in the Pacific Ocean.
There are numerous Ocean Trenches beyond
continental rise.
47. 47
The greatest depths of oceans can be seen only
in the form of ocean trenches.
These are steep sided, long narrow and hollow
portions.
They may be 300-500 km in length and 30-100
km wide with a depth of 6 km.
Initially, their sides slope at 4 to 8° and then
goes upto 16° to depths more than 10 km.
For those parts of a depression which exceed
6000 m in depth, the term Ocean deep is used.
48. 48
Ocean trenches are formed due to subduction
of the oceanic crust.
The faults which transect these ridges are
called as Transform faults.
Ocean trenches are found to be parallel to the
Volcanic Arcs in the oceans.
These may extend 3 to 4 Km below the level of
the surrounding ocean floor.
49. 49
The greatest known trench of the world is the
Mariana Trench which goes upto a depth of
11022 m, below sea level.
The length may go upto 2550 Km and the
width may go upto 70 Km.
The trench zones are characterized by complete
darkness and unimaginable pressures due to the
great depth.
50. 50
The pressure may go upto 16000 pounds per
square inch of the ocean floors.
This is almost inhospitable zone of deep sea for
any life to stay and survive in the oceans.
There is yet another feature within the ocean
basins at the interior zones.
They are the
51. 51
Mid oceanic ridges:
Oceanic ridges are the most remarkable
features.
These cover nearly 23% of the earth’s surface.
The mid-ocean ridges and rises are formed in
zones of tension where plates diverge.
These ridges aerially cross to more than 65000
km of the deep-ocean basins.
52. 52
These are the largest single topographic feature
in the world.
These are considered as the world’s largest
mountain ranges existing below marine waters.
The mountains of ocean ridges are not similar
to the mountains of continents.
These ridges are mountain-like structures
standing well above the deep ocean floors.
The mid oceanic ridges are, in total, 65,000 km
long and cover almost 23% of the earth’s
surface.
53. 53
They exist as chains, in the centre of the
oceanic basins.
These are rugged features.
They stand 1 to 3 km above the deep ocean
floors.
The most prominent feature of a ridge is its
steep-sided central valley called rift valley. A
rift valley may be 25 to 50 km wide and 1 to 2
km deep in its profile.
54. 54
The rift valley of a mid oceanic ridge is
bordered by rugged mountains with the tallest
peaks.
These peaks may rise upto 2 km above the sea
surface also as seen in some locations.
Upwelling of molten mantle rock has created
these rift zones.
The ocean ridges are composed entirely of
basalts and are not deformed by any folding.
55. 55
The ridges are of two types as
a) active spreading centre ridge and rise and
b) Inactive aseismic ridge.
The active spreading ridges are about 1000 km
wide and 1 to 2 km high.
There may also be ridge valleys.
The ridge valleys form due to the subsidence
and down-faulting of the central portions
where two plates are diverging.
56. 56
Oceanic ridges are traversed by series of
fractures with steep sides running
perpendicular to ridges (or) rises.
Island arcs:
Island arcs are curved chain of volcanic
islands.
They are generally convex towards the open
sea.
Due to this nature, they are called as Arcs.
57. 57
There are hundreds and thousands of extinct
volcanoes in the ocean floors.
These regions are seismically active zones.
Island arcs are topographically and structurally
continuous features.
These are formed when two oceanic plates
converge and collide.
The melting of the descending plate rises
upwards as an extended magma, to form the
islands.
58. 58
Most of these eruptions are unnoticed.
In some localities, especially in islands, one
can see the impacts as mud volcanoes and hot
springs.
Various features found in the ocean basins are
not permanent.
Some parts of the ocean may be closing due to
plate movements and some part may be
expanding.
This process of opening and closing of the
ocean basin is called as Wilson cycle.
59. 59
Seamounts and guyots
Seamounts and Guyots are some more unique
features of the ocean basins.
Seamounts are isolated steep sided submarine
volcanic mounts.
They may be 2-100 km wide and < 1 km high
above the sea floor.
Very rarely, they rise above the sea level as
seen in Hawaii islands.
60. 60
Guyots are flat-topped seamounts.
The flat-top is created due to wave action.
It is named after the Swiss scientist, A.H.
Guyot.
Seamounts are more than Guyots in the world.
Now-a-days, Digital Terrain Models of
Seamounts are generated from multibeam
sonar data.
61. 61
These methods are in a position to provide
three-dimensional pictures of the ocean floors
and morphology.
The vast ocean floor:
The ocean floors is a very vast zone.
It consist of rocks of geologically young age.
The oldest is of Jurassic in age.
62. 62
Hundreds of millions of tons of sediment are
emptied into the ocean every year by the world
streams.
Of the total volume of sediments, half of it lies
on the shelves, slopes and rises.
They are called as terrigenous sediments.
The rest are in the deep oceans.
These are clays and oozes. They are called as
pelagic sediments.
63. 63
The age of the oceans and the morphological
features of the sea floor have been extremely
important to the development of the theory of
plate tectonics, oceanic water distribution and
circulation, control of marine life and the
global climate.
The oceanic crust forms the ocean floor.
It consists of hard volcanic rocks called basalts.
The continents lie above the continental crust.
64. 64
Continental crust consists of granitic rocks.
Granites are lighter than basalts.
Due to this, the continental crust is assumed to
"float" on the mantle, above the oceanic crust.